۱۳۸۸ خرداد ۲۴, یکشنبه

گاف کردن و دادن و بی اطلاعی از زبان های اروپائی

واژه «گاف» كه در جمله‌هايي مثل «طرف گاف داد» به كار مي‌بريم بر خلاف انتظار که گمان می رود اولین حرف یک کلمه احتمالاً بی ادبانه فارسی باشد واژه ای انگلیسی است (Gaffe) و در واقع همان كلمه‌اي است كه در عبارتي مثل «گاف انرژي» به كار مي‌بريم. یک آقایی به نام آشپز باشی در اینترنت راجع به این واژه نوشته است : قديم‌ها گاف "مي‌کردند"، "نمي‌دادند"!قديم‌ها مثلاً وقتي صحبت سياست بود فرض بفرماييد مي‌گفتند رزم آرا تو سخنراني ديروزش گاف کرد و وقتي صحبت به مسئله‌ي نفت رسيد گفت...يا مثلاً گافي که اميني کرد اين بود دربار و ارتباط شاه با آمريکا را....و از اين قبيل.
در فرانسه هم مي‌گويند fair gaffe و faire همان to do انگليسي است يا يک درجه روشنفکرانه‌تر منزه‌تر، مي‌گويند commettre gaffe يعني مرتکب گاف شدن.
اين گاف "دادن" اختراع جديد است که من مي‌بينم همه جا مي‌نويسند. آنچه ما از قديمي‌ها شنيديم گاف کردن بود و بس. گاف دادن بي‌معني است.
"گوف" به انگلیسی یعنی خیط کردن یا دسته گل به آب دادن. حتماً شخصیت کارتونی معروف دیزنی را به نام "گوفی" می شناسید.
امروزه بیشتر خطاي فردي يا اشتباه لفظي يک مقام رسمي در سطح جامعه و يا در مقياس ديپلماتيک را گاف می گویند. معمولا یک انسان وقتی سیاستمدار باشد، طبعا گاف می دهد! « گاف» مي تواند در کشورهایی که اشتباه کردن مهم است، شغل افراد را از آنها بگيرند.
حکایات و امثال:این حکایات و امثال تاریخی و بعضا من درآوردی هم اشارات محکمی به ضرورت پاسداشت زبان در راستای جلوگیری از گاف دارند:
« حرف زدن بلد نیستی، حرف نزدن رو که بلدی؟»
« اومد نطق کنه، شیرجه رفت»
« حرف حرف میاره، باد برف میاره، با یک عالمه گاف»
« حرف زدن بلد نیستی مجبوری گاف بدی!»
«یارو گاف بازه قسم دروغ هم می خوره! »
نقل از رجا نیوز

بعد التحریر: آخرین نمونه از این دست در "در باره الی" آمده است.

۱۳۸۸ خرداد ۲۳, شنبه

از چیستی موزه

دفتر نخست کتاب موزه و دانش بشر اثر الین هوپر-گرین هیل. این کتاب سالها در اداره انتشارات اداره کل موزه ها، معاونت معرفی و آموزش سازمان میراث فرهنگی کشور خاک خورد و برخلاف متن ترجمه دو کتاب دیگر مترجم: نمایشگاههای موزه اثر دیوید دین و حفاظت اشیا موزه ای اثر سوارنا کمال در آنجا گم نشد. اینک که پس از هشت سال دوباره دستم به متن رسیده آن را از این طریق در اختیار علاقمندان می گذارم.

مهرداد وحدتی








الیان هویرگرین هیل



موزه چیست؟ موزه ها را دیگر به شکل بریتیش میوزیوم – آن نیایشگاه ملی گرایِ فرهنگ نمی سازند. امروزه تقریبا˝ همه چیز می تواند به موزه تبدیل شود و آنها در مزارع، کشتی ها، معادن زغال سنگ، انبارها، زندانها، قلعه ها یا کلبه های روستایی می بینیم. تجربه موزه رفتن اغلب به رفتن به پارک موضوعی، نزدیک تر است تا تجربه دیدار از موزه های محبوس گذشته، که به نظر می رسد در قاب آیینه قرار دارند.

در چند سال اخیر، شاهد تغییر و تجدید سازمانی مهم در موزه ها بوده ایم این تغییر، شدید و سریع بود و برای بسیاری از مردم که موزه ها را به همان شکل می پسندیدند، غیر منتظره و غیر قابل قبول به نظر می رسید. این تحول موجب شد که پندارهای پیشین درباره ماهیت موزه، برهم ریزد. تغییرات اخیر، بسیاری را که تصور کردند می دانند موزه چیست، چگونه باید باشد و چه بکند، سخت تکان داده است.

چند گاهی این دیدگاه ثابت درباره هویت موزه ها، سخت مراعات می شده و تا این اواخر نیز کمتر چیزی آن را آشفته کرده بود. اما اشتباه خواهد بود اگر تصور شود که تنها یک نوع واقعیت درباره ماهیت موزه و نیز تنها یک شکل ثابت از فعالیت موزه ای وجود دارد. با نگاهی به تاریخچه موزه ها خواهیم دید که واقعیات موزه ها چندین بار تغییر کرده است. موزه ها همواره ناچار بوده اند بر حسب زمینه ای که در آن قرار دارند، بازیهای قدرت، بایدهای اجتماعی، اقتصادی و سیاسی که آنها را احاطه کرده، فعالیتهای خود و نحوه انجام آنها را تغییر دهند. موزه ها نیز همچون دیگر نهادهای اجتماعی، درخدمت کارفرمایانی متعدداند و به همین علت می بایست نقشهای متفاوت ایفا کنند. احتمالا˝ موفقیتهای موزه ها برحسب توانایی آنها در متوازن ساختن نقشهای متعددی که باید ایفا کنند و ارائه خدمات ارزشمند، قابل تعریف است.

در حال حاضر در بسیاری از حیطه های تصمیم گیری بودجه و نگهداری موزه ها پرسشهایی دشواردر زمینه توجیه موزه ها، نقش آنها در جامعه، عملکرد و توانایی شان مطرح می شود. در مواردی که پاسخی به این گونه پرسشها داده نشود یا موزه ها به نسبت اولویتهای دیگر کم اهمیت تر دانسته شوند، مجموعه ها به فروش گذارده می شوند، کارکنان اخراج و بناها تعطیل می گردند. در بیشتر موارد پاسخی که داده می شود این است که موزه ها موسساتی آموزش اند. امروزه نقش آموزشی موزه از وجوه عمده توجیه وجود آنهاست، به عنوان مثال مدیران انجمن موزه ها به مناسبت تصمیم شورای استان دربی شایر انگلستان در مورد فروش برخی از مجموعه های موزه چنین استدلال کردند که :

موزه ها و مجموعه های آنها در حکم خدمتی ارزشمند و بی بدیل، با ارزش آموزشی عظیم اند. علاقه نشان ندادن به حفظ مجموعه موزه یعنی بی علاقگی به آموزش و حفظ آگاهی نسبت به دربی شایر و تاریخ و فرهنگ آن است.
(ایندیپندنت، 6 سپتامبر1990)

اینک به خوبی روشن شده که دانستن کالایی است که موزه ها به ارائه آن می پردازند. ذکر یک مثال به توضیح این معنا کمک خواهد کرد. فرصت تغییر ادراک یا دانش ما نسبت به جهان، ازطریق یک موزه یا نگارخانه، به عنوان یک خصلت جدید مشارکت شرکتهای بزرگ در این گونه مکانها، توسط کسانی فراهم می شود که پولشان برگزاری نمایشگاهها را عملی می سازد. به عنوان مثال بانی نمایشگاه مونه در آکادمی سلطنتی در پاییز 1999(1360)، در یک آگهی در زمینه رنگی روزنامه ایندیپندنت (هشتم سپتامبر 1990) اعلام داشت:

دریابید چگونه بینش یک نفر می تواند نگرش شما به جهان را تغییر دهد.

در هر مجموعه هیچ دو تابلوی دقیقن برابر وجود ندارد. بن مایه یکی است، اما در پرتوئی متفاوت و فصلها و فضاهای متنوع نشان داده شده است. این است مونه دهه 1999.

شرکت دیجیتال و کارکنان آن از کمک به برگزاری نمایشگاهی که برای اولین بار به ارائه مجموعه ای از آثار کلودمونه در کنار یکدیگر می پردازد، احساس مباهات می کنند.

این مدعا که به شکل آگهی و به منظور بزرگداشت ارزشهای یک شرکت اعلام شده، در عین حال بیانگر این معناست که چگونه دانش می تواند موجب تغییر نگرش گردد.
به ما گفته می شود که با درک و شناخت این نقاشی ها، برداشت ما از جهان تغییر خواهد کرد. این گفته به معنای شناخت نقش موزه ها و نگارخانه ها در تحول ادراک و کمک به افزایش دانش است.



اما پرسشی که در اینجا به ذهن می آید، این است که اگر موزه ها مکان هایی برای اطلاع از چیزهای تازه هستند و در آن مکانها ادراک ما دستخوش تحولی بنیادین می گردد، ماهیت این آگاهی چیست؟ و این تغییر چگونه صورت می گیرد؟

تنها در این اواخر موزه ها در معرض تحلیلهای موشکافانه قرار گرفته اند. در گذشته موزه ها به طریقی از تحقیقات دقیقی که به عنوان مثال در مورد مدارس و رسانه ها صورت گرفته، بر کنار مانده بودند. اکنون برنامه درسی و پیش فرضهای بنیادی نادیده ای که صحبتی از آنها در میان نیست، اما در عین حال قدرتمند اند و آنچه در برنامه درسی مدارس دانش تلقی می شود، عرضه شده است ( یانگ 1975). برنامه های تلویزیونی نیز با دقّتی در همین حد بررسی شده و عناصر اعتقادی، اقتصادی و فرهنگی تشکیل دهنده محصول ظاهرا˝ منسجمی که به مصرف آن می پردازیم در معرض دید قرار گرفته است (گروه رسانه های دانشگاه گلاسکو، 1972 ؛ 1980 ؛ 1982 ؛ ویلیامر، 974 ). تحقیق درباره راه های توانمند سازی، شکل دهی و استفاده از دانش در مدارس از طریق فیلم، تلویزیون و ادبیات، کاملا˝ شکل گرفته است. با این حال، هنوز تحلیل عناصر گوناگونی که بر روی هم "واقعیتی" را که "موزه" می نامیم تشکیل می دهد، آن طور که باید آغاز نشده است.

در این کتاب به طرح پرسشهای بنیادی می پردازیم. ” دانستن “ در موزه به چه معناست؟ چه چیز در موزه "دانستن" به شمار می آید؟ یا به عبارت دیگر مبنای عقلانیت در موزه چیست؟ چه چیزهایی پذیرفته شده اند و چه چیزها مسخره دانسته می شوند و چرا؟ آیا با گذشت زمان تغییری در این وضعیت پیدا می شود؟ از افراد توقع داریم چگونه در موزه ایفای نقش کنند؟ نقش بازدید کننده و نقش موزه دارچیست؟ چگونه اقلام مادی به صورت اشیاء ی موزه ای در می آیند؟ چگونه افراد به موضوع مبدل می شوند؟ رابطه میان فضا، زمان موضوع و شی چیست؟ و پرسشی که احتمالا˝ همه پرسشهای دیگر را دربر می گیرد این که موزه ها چگونه به صورت موضوع در می آیند؟ یا به عبارت دیگر موزه ها از چه تشکیل می شود؟

تحقیقات انتقادی راجع به موزه انگشت شمارند وعملن همه آنها خارج از تجربه مستقیم حرفه موزه داری بوده اند. کارکنان موزه ها، تا همین اواخر، از شی وه های عملی موزه داری بی خبر بودند و به نقد فراگردهایی که در زندگی روزمره درگیر آنهایند، نمی پرداختند. در واقع در حیطه روشهای موزه، جنبه نقد یا تفکر تکامل یافته در مورد کارهای روزانه موزه بسیار ضعیف بوده است. هنوز هم برخی از موزه داران که خود را از آن مردمان اهل عمل می بینند که وقتی برای فعالیتهای غیر مولد ندارند، فعالانه در برابر تأملات انتقادی مقاومت می کنند. تا همین اواخر بیشتر فعالیت موزه ای بدون اهداف شناخته شده، بدون سیاستهای سازمانی درک شده و مورد توافق عموم و به دور از متن عقاید دریافت شده انجام می گرفت ( بارت، 1985؛ مایلیز، 1985؛ پرینس وشادلا – هال، 1985 ).

فقدان مطالعه و بررسی شیوه های حرفه ای، فرهنگی، اعتقادی درباره موزه ها به معنای ناکامی در وارسی اصول بنیادینی است که شیوه های رایج موزه ها و نگارخانه ها مبتنی برآنهایند، و این امرموجب خلا در تدوین تاریخچه انتقادی موزه شده است. ساختار تعقّلی ای که ما را از نحوه شکل گیری موزه در گذشته و حال آگاه می سازد، ساده است و به همین علت مسلم دانسته می شود.

بیشتر توضیحات مربوط به موزه اصل عقلانیت را ظّنی نمی داند، هرچند که می توان چنین استدلال کرد که موزه در مقام ”جایگاه رده بندی“ (وایت هد، 1970؛ 1971 ) در طول زمان فعالانه درگیر ایجاد عقلانیت های متنوع بوده است. عقلانیت چیزی مسلم و بی نیاز از توضیح دانسته می شود :

نقش بنیادی موزه در گردآوری اشیاء و نگهداری آنها در یک محیط فکری معین بر این معنا تأکید دارد که موزه ها گنجینه دانش و اشیاء یند و اگر گردآوری اشیاء کاملا˝ عقلانی نبا شد، تمامی فعالیت ها می تواند بی ثمر شود.


( کنون – بروکس، 116:1984)


اما اگرچه کارکنان موزه ها از تاثیر اعمال خود بی خبر بوده اند، دیگران تا این اندازه بی توجه نبودند. میشل فوکو در مقدمهٔ کتاب نظم امور به طور مشروح به تاثیر خارق العاده نظامهای طبقه بندی اشاره می کند:

این کتاب در آ غاز با خواندن چند سطر از بورخس شکل گرفت و از خنده ای که در حین خواندن این چند سطر همهٔ نشانه های راهنما در اندیشه مرا - اندیشه مارا – که داغ عصر ما و گیتا شناسی مارا برخوردار دارد، متلاشی ساخت و از این طریق کلیه سطوح منظم و کلیه سطوحی را که بر طبق عادت در نظم دهی به افزایش مهار ناشدنی موجودات شکل گرفتند درهم ریخت و مدتها به آشفتگی و تهدید تمیز کهن ما میان اشیاء ی یکسان و آنچه دیگر دانسته می شود ادامه داد. این قطعه از کتاب از "دائرة المعارفی چینی" استفاده می کند که در آن نوشته شده است : "جانوران به چند دسته تقسیم می شوند: الف ) جانوران متعلق به امپراتور؛ ب) جانوران مومیایی شده؛ ج) جانوران اهلی؛ د) خوکهای شیر خوار؛ ه) حوریهای دریایی؛ و) موجودات افسانه ای؛ ز) سگهای ولگرد؛ ح) جانوران مندرج در رده بندی حاضر؛ ط) جانوران دیوانه؛ ی) جانوران شمارش ناپذیر؛ ک) جانوران نقاشی شده با قلم موی تهیه شده از موی بسیار ظریف؛ ل) و غیره ؛ م) جانوری که تازه تنگ آب را شکسته است؛ ن) جانوری که از دور شبیه مگس به نظر می رسد". در شگفتی این رده بندی آنچه در نگاه اول درمی یابیم جهشی است بزرگ؛ از راه این افسانه گیرایی نظام فکری دیگر نمایانده می شود ومحدودیت فکر خودمان و امکان ناپذیری مطلق تفکر دربارهٔ آن را در می یابیم.

(فوکو،1970: پانزدهم)




نظام رده بندی، مرتب ساختن و درچارچوب قراردادن که سیاهه بالا برآن بنا شده، چنان برای شیوه تفکر غربی ما بیگانه است که حقیقتاً ”غیر قابل تصور“ و عملاً ”غیرعقلانی“ جلوه می کند. اما ظاهراً این سیاهه زمانی روشی عقلانی و شی وه ای معتبر برای دانستن تلقی می شده. چگونه می توان مطمئن شد عقلانیتی که به توضیح معنای این سیاهه می پردازد، وجود ندارد؟

توانایی درک چنین سیاهه ای به معنای شکوفایی ذهن خواهد بود و امکانات تازه ای ازنظررده بندی جهان و حتی شیوه های نوینی از زندگی درآن، در اختیار می گذارد. یقیناً این سیاهه مستلزم وجود شیوه های جدید موزه آرایی در موزه ها و نگارخانه ها خواهد بود. به عنوان مثال طبق این سیاهه، تفکیکی که میان ” هنرهای زیبا و تزئینی “ و” تاریخ طبیعی“ قائل می شویم، زدوده خواهد شد. بسیاری از رده بندیهایی که برای توضیح رابطه متقابل میان اشیاء و گونه ها به کار می گیریم نیاز به بازنویسی پیداکرده کرده لازم خواهد شد در تنظیم مجموعه ها تجدید نظر شود؛ می بایست نقاشی ها، دست ساخته ها و هنرهای دستی ونمونه ها به شیوه ای متفاوت در ویترینها جای گرفته و مدارک و مستندات آنها واربازبینی شده اصلاح گردد و جای آنها در کشوها، اشکافها و قفسه های مخزن تغییر کند. به عبارت دیگر چنانچه این رده بندی را که فوکو شرح داده ”درست“ بدانیم، لازم می شود کار موزه داران در شناسایی، تنظیم، طبقه بندی و نمایش مجموعه هایشان یکسره از نو صورت گیرد.

اگررده بندیهای تازه به معنای شیوه های جدید طبقه بندی و مستند سازی مجموعه ها باشد آیا به این نتیجه نخواهیم رسید که روشهای فعلی سازماندهی مجموعه ها بیشتر از آن که ”درست“ یا ”عقلانی“باشد، در واقع توسط اجتماع تدوین شده است؟ آیا نظام های رده بندی موجود، برخی از شیوه های دانستن را امکان پذیر می سازد و سّد راه شیوه های دیگری می شود؟ آیا موارد حذف و درج و اولویتهایی که تعیین می کنند اشیاء بخشی از مجموعه ها بشود یا نشود نیز به ایجاد نظامهای معرفتی کمک می کنند؟ آیا آیین ها و روابط قدرت که اجازه می دهند برخی از اشیاء ارزشمند دانسته شوند و بعضی مردود گردند به همان شی وه معیار های دانش را به کار می اندازند که تنظیم برنامه آئین ها و روابط قدرت معلمان، مدیران و شاگردان در ارزشمند تر نشان دادن برخی ازدرسهای مدارس نسبت درسهای دیگر؟

تقسیم بندیهای داخلی موزه ها، در ارتباط با توانائی شان در ایجاد یا جلوگیری از امکانات عقلانی دیده نشده است. رده بندیهایی که داخل موزه ها صورت گرفته خصلت بدیهی به خود گرفته اند. فراگرد های انتخاب و طبقه بندی موزه ها ندرتاً بر اساس ویژگیهای تاریخی یا جغرافیایی صورت می گیرد و حتی در آن صورت نیز در سطحی بسیار ابتدایی است :

مجموعه سازی فعالیتی است بس بنیادی، از این لحاظ که گردآوری خوراک از ویژگیهای همه حیوانات است اما بجز فعالیتهای برخی از گونه های پرندگان، گردآوری منتظم اشیا یی که نقشی اندیش زا در مقابل نقشهای جسمانی دارند، به معدودی از فرهنگها و جوامع بشری محدود می شود.
(کانن – بروکس، 115:1984)

هویت اشیاء مادّی معین نیز به همان صورت مسلّم دانسته می شود که مفهوم هویت مجموعه ها و موزه ها. تفسیر اشیاء ی مادی به صورت ” اشیاء“ دارای هویتی خاص ظنّی دانسته نمی شود. اشیاء همان اند که هستند. به ندرت این فکر پیش می آید که ممکن است اشیاء ی مادی به چندین شیوهٔ متفاوت فهمیده شوند و این که می توان از اشیاء معانی متعدد به دست آورد و حسب نیاز بکار گرفت. اگر چه به عنوان مثال، ما با شیوه گزینش و استفاده از اشیاء مادی در ارتباط با توان بالقوه تداعی گر و عقلانی آنها در تبلیغات آشنا هستیم، به این معنا توجه نداریم که از طریق استفاده موزه ها از اشیاء مادی نیز روابط و پیوندهایی برقرار و در واقع هویتهایی ایجاد می شود ( بارت، 1977).

به همین ترتیب، تقسیم بندی ها و طبقه بندیهای اشیاء در پیوند با شیوه ای که هر تقسیم بندی ارتباطی متقابل با تقسیم بندی و طبقه بندی فضاها و افراد پیدا می کند کاویده نشده اند. اگر به عنوان مثال موزه ای مجموعه جدیدی از بانکهای خودکار قرن نوزدهم یا تخت روانهای یکنفره قرن شانزدهم اروپا را بپذیرد، بلافاصله نیاز به سمتی مرتبط به این موضوع (یک منصب تخصصی جدید) پیش خواهد آمد و چنانچه امکان این کار وجود نداشته باشد لازم خواهد شد ازطریق تقسیم کار تغییری در یکی از از نقشهای سازمانی موجود در موزه ایجاد گردد. موزه دار تاریخ اجتماعی ( یا هنرهای تزئینی ) ناچار خواهد شد بار کاری خود را چنان تقسیم کند که نیازهای مجموعه جدید را نیز برآورده سازد. لازم است کارهای تحقیقاتی انجام شود و از طریق نوشتن فهرست راهنما و تک نگاری و برپایی نمایشگاه دانشی جدید ایجاد گردد.

باید فضاهای تازه ای پیدا کرد یا در فضاهای قدیمی تغییراتی داد. احتمالاً فضاهای کمتری برای صندلیهای چیپندال باقی خواهد ماند ؛ بخصوص اگر تخت روانها در وضعیت عالی و متعلق به افرادی مهم بوده و صندلیهای چیپندال حال و روز خوبی نداشته باشند، لازم است اولویت تازه در نظر گرفته شود. به موازات تداوم این فراگرد، هویت موزه هم تغییر می کند و تعدیل می یابد.

در موزه ها و نگارخانه ها تصمیم گیری درباره نحوه استقرار اشیاء مادی در متن لوازم دیگر تحت تاثیر چند عامل از جمله تقسیم بندی فعلی اشیاء ، به ویژه آئین های موزه داری هر موسسه، شرایط مادی اشیاء ، علایق و شوق و تخصص موزه دار انجام می شود.

گرچه مرتب سازی اشیاء مادی درهرموسسه بر اساس تمایزهای دقیقاً تعریف شده ای صورت می گیرد ؛ که به تنظیم هر موضوع، آئین های موزه داری، فضاهای ویژه انبار و نمایش و دست ساخت ها و نمونه های می پردازد، ممکن است این تمایزها در هر موسسه تفاوت داشته و هر یک از آنها به یک اندازه تثبیت شده باشد. ممکن است یک شیء مادی واحد، پس از قرار گرفتن تحت مقررات مجموعه های متفاوت، به شکل های دیگر رده بندی شود. به این ترتیب امکان دارد قاشق چایخوری نقره قرن هجدهمی ساخت شفیلد درموزه بیرمنگام ”هنر صنعتی“ در استوک ان ترنت ”هنر تزئینی“، در موزه ویکتوریا و آلبرت ”نقره“ ودر موزه جزیره کلهام در شفیلد ”صنعت“ دانسته شود. دیگر اشیاء یی نیز که به این شکل طبقه بندی می شوند در هر موزه در رده ای متفاوت جای می گیرند و بر این اساس معنا و اهمیت قاشق چایخوری تفاوت خواهد کرد.

گرچه در درون موزه ها بحث های بسیار درباره محل اشیاء و بازیابی آنها، یعنی تنظیم دست ساخته ها در فضای موزه ها و در ارتباط با یکدیگر دست ساخته ها و نمونه ها صورت می گیرد ( تامسون، 1984: 113تا 376) این تقسیم بندی فضاها بر حسب توانایی هایی که ایجاد می کنند و آن چه نادیده می گذارند ظنی نمی گردند. محور دید که در ارتباط با فاعل،موضوع و فضا عمل می کند، از لحاظ تصاویری که به دست می دهد مورد چون و چرا قرارنمی گیرد. در بسیاری از موارد، خود این محور درک نمی شود. روابط میان فاعل و موضوع بدیهی و طبیعی شمرده می شود. یک تقسیم بندی قوی و عمومی/شحصی درعملی که فاعلان را ”اعضای جامعه“ یا ”موزه داران“ می شناسد، وجود دارد. اگر چه بسیاری از موزه ها به "گسترش مخاطبان" خود علاقه مندند عمدتاً این عمل به صورت بسط تمایزهایی جلوه می کند که هم اینک میان هر دسته از فاغلان وجود دارد. تقسیم بندی عاری از انعطافی میان فاعل گردآوری به صورت موزه دار و فاعل بیننده ؛ بعنی بازدید کننده وجود دارد، حتی اگر این تمایزها در دیگر تعاریف شیوه های موزه داری معکوس شوند. به عنوان مثال، موزه داران در بازدید ازموزه هایی که از آن خودشان نیست، به چشم افراد متخصص نگریسته نمی شوند، مگر از طریق بهره گیری از مراسمی خاص که امتیازهای معین همچون رفتن به پشت صحنه، مجاز شدن به کار کردن با اشیاء یا نزدیک تر شدن به آنها و حتی اجازه اظهار عقیده درباره هویت یک شیء را به آنان ارزانی می دارد تخصص خود را اعلام دارند.

روابط قدرت در داخل موزه ها و گنجینه ها به نفع فاعلان گردآوری است که به تصمیم گیری درباره فضا، زمان و امکان مشاهده می پردازند؛ به عبارت دیگر آنهایند که درباره آن چه می توان دید، و نحوه و زمان مشاهده تصمیم می گیرند. برای عموم مردم کنش متقابل با مجموعه، جز به این صورت که نمایشگاه ها را بسیار کامل و عاری از هر گونه نقص در ارائه ببینند، شدیداً محدود شده است و به همین علت تعریف معانی مجموعه ها به حیطه شخصی کارکنان موزه ها محدود می شود. موزه دارانی که درک می کنند چگونه این شیوه ها آنان را در موضع قدرت قرار می دهد و مایلند که این قدرت شخصی را کاهش دهند در صدد یافتن راههایی هستند که بیشتر به دیگران اجازه دهد تا استنباطهای خود را داشته و آنها را به کرسی بنشانند( فیوستر، 1990). جالب این که این امرعموماً بدین معناست که شیوه های موزه داری که در نهایت باهدف دور نگاه داشتن اشیاء از دید مردم طراحی شده اند بناچار باید یکسره تجدید نظر شوند.
با این وجود به طورکلی ترکیب فعلی موزه ها با روابط واقعاً خشک رایج در آنها مسلم دانسته میشود، این داده ها به منظور توصیف هویت موزه ها در دیگر لحظه های تاریخی و فضاهای جغرافیایی به زمانهای گذشته نسبت داده می شوند. به این لحاظ، تا به حال نگارش تاریخ موزه ها عبارت بوده است از عقب بردن سابقهٔ روابط فعلی موجود موزه ها تا سرحدامکان و درپی آن شناسایی یک سیر تحول خطی روبه جلو از این روابط. "موزه های" دیگر ادوار تاریخی به صورت ”اجداد بلافصل “شکلهای امروزی موزه دیده می شوند (تیلور، 202:1987). "تاریخچه موزه امروزی عملاً از رنسانس شروع می شود. . . هر چند که در آن زمان نیز نقش دوگانه موزه ها مشهود است: نمایش اشیاء و ارائه مجموعه ای جهت تحقیقات دانشمندان"( وایت هد، 7:1981 ).


این تاریخچه ”کور“ و ناتوان برای تحلیل، فهم و شرح موزه داری فعلی نتایجی وخیم دارد. اولاً، مجالی برای در نظر گرفتن تکّثر تاریخی نمی ماند. این وضعیت در ارتباط با موزه ها بسیار حاّد می شود زیرا شکل موزه ها فوق العاده متنوع و تعریفات اداری- مالی "مجموعه ها" و درجات فعالیت آنها متفاوت است. هر یک از این تجلیّات مادی متفاوت را می توان به مجموعه های متفاوت از موانع و امکانات نسبت داد.

ثانیاً، می تواند موجب تضعیف درک ما از گذشته شودکه همانا فقدان صراحت تاریخی است. جستجوی ”خاستگاها “ و "سنت" موزه ها یعنی تلاش در جهت یافتن شباهتها به جای پی جوئی تفاوتها و مجموعه های خاص روابط سیاسی، فرهنگی، اقتصادی واعتقادی که مشخصه تجلیات متفاوت تاریخی هستند و در نتیجه نادیده می مانند و به همین علت عملاً فراموش می شوند.

ثالثا"، شرح مفاهیم تغییر به خودی خود دشوار است. اگر هدف، نشان دادن این باشد که چگونه امور یکسان مانده اند پس درک تغییر به چه شکل صورت خواهد گرفت؟ ناتوانی در درک امکان تغییر در موزه جمود در درک زمان حال را در پی خواهد داشت. شرایطی که در حال حاضر وجود دارند، تغییر ناپذیر دانسته می شوند و توجیه کننده این وضعیت تاریخچه ای است واحد و عاری از هرگونه تمایز. شرحهایی که در حال حاضر از فعالیتهای موزه ای وجود دارد، تنها شرحهای ممکن دانسته می شود و امکانات بنیادی موزه ها در مقام محلهایی برای تفکر نقادّانه درباره گذشته و حال از دست می رود. در عصری که همه حیطه های اجتماعی دیگر در دوره تحولی سریع قرار دارند که – خواه ناخواه – بر شیوه ها و امکانات موزه ها تاثیر می گذارد، نبود الگویی انعطاف پذیر برای موزه ها به مشکلاتی ناگوار از لحاظ انطباق و کارکرد با عناصر جدیدی که بر موزه داری امروزی تحمیل می شوند، می انجامد. بدون این توانایی انطباق، یافتن شیوه های جدید برای موزه بودن و پیدا کردن راههای تازه جلب حمایت موزه ها بسته، مجموعه ها فروخته و کارکنان اخراج می شوند. اگر بتوان موزه ها و نگارخانه های امروزی را تنها شکل ممکن برای حیات موزه ندید، بلکه آن ها را صرفاً شکلی دانست که بازی قدرتهای گوناگون به آن امکان ظهور داده است، در آن صورت هر تغییر در این بازی قدرت را می توان بخشی از مبارزه ممتد و پرتکاپو برسر کسب تسلّط دید. اگر این روند، همان طور که از مبارزه قدرت انتظار داریم، مداوم و گریز ناپذیر باشد گزینه ها روشن خواهد بود : ورود به میدان مبارزه بر سر کسب قدرتِ تحمیل معانی و تعاریف یا بیرون ماندن از بازی قدرت و مجاز دانستن دیگران به تحمیل معانی و تعریف حدود.

تاریخ کارآمد و عملی

در اینجا سعی کرده ایم به وارسی داده های امروزی موزه ها با هدف یافتن شیوه های تازه نگارش و فهم تاریخچه موزه در حال حاضر بپردازیم، برای نیل به این مهم از ژرف بینهای اثر میشل فوکو استفاده خواهیم کرد.

اثر فوکو از چند جهت جالب است. به عنوان مثال، فوکو عقلانیتی را که به استقرار نظام مقبولیت می پردازد، مورد چون و چرا قرار می دهد ( فوکو، الف 1980 : 257 ) به عبارت دیگر، جهان مبتنی برعقل سلیم که در آن زندگی می کنیم، مسلم دانسته نمی شود، بلکه از کلیه جنبه ها از جمله از لحاظ مفاهیم بنیادی که آنها را معقول یا "درست" می دانیم مورد چون و چرا قرار می گیرد. فوکو خرد و حقیقت را مفاهیم نسبی، نه مطلق، می داند و گوید: هم خرد، هم حقیقت، زمینه های تاریخی، اجتماعی و فرهنگی دارند. فوکو به جای پذیرش اصل مسلم فلسفی متعارف دربارهٔ وجود عقلانیت مطلق، تقسیم بندی شناخته شده عقلی/غیر عقلی را مردود دانسته و گوید: اشکال عقلانیت و ویژگیهای تاریخی دارند [ یا به عبارت دیگر هر مقطع از تاریخ، وجوه مشخصه مربوط به خود را دارد. م. و. د.] آن چه در یک زمان عملی عقلانی محسوب می شود، در زمانی دیگر عقلانی دانسته نمی شود و این امر بستگی به نوع خردی دارد که در هر مقطع زمانی فائق است.

فوکو به بررسی نحوه تغییر اشکال خرد در طول زمان و نحوه شکل گیری آنها در لحظات تاریخی معین می پردازد و این موضوع را وارسی می کند که چگونه اشکال عقلانیت و نظامهای حقیقت به طرح خود در شیوه ها و نظامهایی از شیوه ها می پردازند. آن گاه به پرشس درباره نقش آنها در این شیوه ها می پردازد ( فوکو، 1981 الف: 8 ). خرد، حقیقت یا دانش چگونه ایجاد شده اند و نحوه حکومت مردم بر خود و دیگران بر طبق محدودیتها و ویژگیهای این اشکال خاص چگونه بوده است؟

اثر فوکو نشان می دهد خاستگاه آنچه عقلانی و واجد حقیقت می دانیم، ریشه در سلطه و انقیاد دارد و به وسیله روابط نیروها و قدرتها شکل گرفته است (هولی، 225:1986). وی مجموعه ابزارهایی برای شناسایی شرایط ممکن، که از طریق مسلم بودن ظاهری و معضلات عصر حاضر عمل می کنند، به ما عرضه می دارد. این ابزارها شیوه هایی را پیش بینی می کنند که مجموعه شیوه هایی را که مسلم دانسته می شوند در معرض وارسی و در نتیجه فهم و سپس تغییر قرار می دهند (فوکو، 1980 الف : 258). اگر بتوانیم این ابزارها را برای تحلیل، فهم و ارزیابی دلایلی به کار بریم که موجب شده اند تا موزه ها مبدل به چیزی شوند که در حال حاضر هستند، شاید از طریق تحلیل چونی موزه ها در گذشته افقهای تازه گشوده شده امکانات جدید برای اقدامات بنیادی فراهم آیند.

یکی از مفیدترین ابزارهای فوکو، رویکرد وی به تاریخ است. فوکو پندار تاریخ متداوم، هموار، تمامیت گرا و بالنده را رد کرده به جای آن به استفاده از ” تاریخ کارآمد“ می پردازد که عبارت است از نگرشی به گذشته که بر نبود تداوم، گسستگی، جا به جایی و پراکندگی تاکید دارد ( فوکو، 4:1974 ). هدف کار فوکو نه "درنهشت ها"، "نظریه ها" یا "ایدئولوژیها " بلکه "روشها" است تا معلوم دارد چه شرایطی باعث مقبولیت آنها در لحظه ای معین می شوند (فوکو، 1981 الف : 5 ).

یکی ازشیوه های فهم تاریخچه حقیقت، تمرکز برتاریخچه خطاهاست. آن اموری که در حال حاضر بیش از همه غیر عقلانی به نظر می رسند، می توانند از طریق تحلیل دقیق و فارغ از حد و مرز هویت ساختارهای دانش در همان عصر شناسایی شوند. اگر ساختارهای عقلانیت واقعاً تغییر کنند به احتمال زیاد آن چه امروز منطقی می دانیم، در گذشته چنین تلقی نمی شده و در آینده نیز نخواهد شد. شیوه هایی که امروزه مبتنی بر عقل سلیم دانسته می شوند و توسط زمینه های اجتماعی، فرهنگی و معرفت شناختی خود ما ایجاد و حفظ شده اند، در آینده خطاهایی شگفت انگیز و ناشی از دانش دانسته خواهند شد وعلت آن نبود دانش و فرهیحتگی. به همان شکل که قرار دادن بال کبوتر توسط دارو سازان قرن شانزدهم برسینه ی بیماران به منظور علاج تب را بی فایده و غیر قابل درک می دانیم، به همین ترتیب برخی از اعمال روزانه خود ما (کسی نمی داند کدام یک) در آینده به همین اندازه برای کسانی که دانش و حقایق آنان مبتنی بر ساختارهای عقلانی متفاوت است، نامفهوم خواهد بود.

مبنای تاریخ کارآمد مخالفت با جستجو برای یافتن سرمنشا امور و ردّ رویکردی است که در صدد تحمیل وقایع نگاری، ساختار تنظیم کننده و سیر تکاملی از گذشته به حال است؛ تاریخ باید مطلقهای خود را رها کند و به جای تلاش در راه یافتن نتایج کلی و وحدت امور، در جست و جوی تفاوت، تغییر و گسستگی باشد. "دانش نه برای فهمیدن بلکه برای قطع کردن است"( فوکو، 1977 الف : 154 ). در این نوع تاریخ، تفاوتهای بین امور– و نه ارتباط میان آنها – اهمیت می یابد. بنابراین پرسشی که باید طرح شود این نیست که "چگونه امور یکسان باقی می مانند؟" بلکه این است که "امور چه تفاوتهایی دارند؟ چگونه تغییر کرده اند و چرا؟".

رویکرد فوکو به تاریخ متاثر از”تاریخ عمومی“ فرنان برادل و مکتب سالنامه نگاری مدافع برنامه تحقیقات تلفیقی و میان رشته ای شامل تخصصهای جغرافی، اقتصاد، جمعیت شناسی، جامعه شناسی، قوم شناسی و روانشناسی است ( گوردون، 1980 : 230). قواعد هر یک از این زمینه های تحلیل که در حیطه تاریخی استفاده می شوند نمایانگر حرکتهای کند "تمدن مادّی" و حرکتهای انباشت آهسته است که تاریخ سنتی، آنها را با لایه ای از رویدادها پوشانده است ( فوکو، 3:1974).

بنابراین ”تاریخ کارآمد“ بر آن حرکتهای بسیار بلند مدّتی متمرکز می شود که چندین قرن طول کشیده اند و اغلب توسط تاریخ متعارف که ترجیحاً در جست و جوی فعالیتهای آنی و کوتاه مدّت است، نادیده گرفته شده اند. تاریخ کارآمد در عین حال به آن انقطاعها و گسستگی ها الویت می دهد که نشانه پایانهای ناگهانی و آغازهای دردناک تازه، تغییرات شدید و خردکننده اند. حتی اینها نیز در تاریخ نگاری متعارف اغلب تجزیه تحلیل نمی شوند، دقیقاً بدان علت که سعی می شود پیوندها و تداومهایی بهر توجیه و حفظ اعمال امروزی پیدا شود. هم از اینروست است که در تاریخ موزه، نگاه خود را به کاخ مدیچی در ایتالیای قرن پانزدهم به عنوان "اولین موزه اروپا" ( تیلور، 69:1948) و سرمشقی که هنوز باید ازآن پیروی کرد( آلسوپ، 339:1982) می اندازیم.

فوکو گوید پرسشهای قدیمی تحلیل تاریخی متعارف از این قبیل که "چه ارتباطی می توان میان رویدادهای مجزا پیدا کرد؟" و "چگونه می توان یک توالی عِلّی میان آنها برقرار ساخت؟" باید جای خود را به پرسشهایی از نوع دیگر بدهند. این پرسشهای جدید چنین اند: "کدام لایه ها می بایست از لایه های دیگر جدا شوند؟"، "چه نوع مجموعه ها می بایست جایگزین گردند؟" و "چه نوع معیارها می بایست در دوره بندی آنها به کار روند؟"- و فهم این معنا که رویدادهای متفاوت و دانشهای متفاوت، عصرهائی مختص به خود دارند (لمرت و جیلیان، 16:1982). اینک پرسشهایی درباره نظامهای روابط، مجموعه های مجموعه ها وجدولهای کلان گاهشمارانه مطرح شده اند. توجه بیشتر برتاریخچه خطاها متمرکز است تا تاریخچه حقیقت. بیشتر شکستهای تاریخ بررسی می شود تا موفقیتها.

” تاریخچه موزه“ که از دیدگاه تاریخ کارآمد نوشته شده باشد، باید به نشان دادن رابطه های تازه و توضیحاتی نو پردازد. تمرکز بر پاسخ گویی به این پرسشها که ”موزه ها“ در گذشته چه وقت و چه گونه تغییر کردند و چگونه و به چه علت شیوه های قدیمی رها شدند، احتمالاً می تواند زمینه ای برای تغییرات فرهنگی بیش از حد ناگهانی امروز در اختیار پژوهشگران گذارد.

سودمندی مطالعه تاریخچه خطاها در جهت فهم تاریخچه حقیقت؛ مثلاً در بحث ”گنجینه های بدایع“ و مجموعه ای از روشها و ارتباطهایی نهفته است که تاریخچه "متعارف" موزه آنها را "غیرعقلانی"، "گوناگون" و مغشوش می شمارد. ”نتایج تاریخچه کارآمد“ که به نحوی منحصر به فرد روشنگر است، با تلاش در جهت درک شرایط و چگونگی روشهایی نشان داده می شوند که تحت آنها "خطاهای" دورانها ”حقایق“ شمرده می شدند. منطق خاص و بداهت ” کابینت جهان“ پس از شناسایی و پژوهش برای واژگونی آراء تاریخ متعارف در آینده به کار گرفته خواهد شد.

ساختار دانش
"تاریخ کارآمد" ابزارهایی برای قرائت مجدد گذشته در اختیار می گذارد. فوکو نیز ابزارهای دیگری پیش می گذارد که برخی از آنها مشخصاً در تحلیل شیوه های کمک موزه ها به شکل دادن به دانش مطرح اند. فوکو در کتاب نظم امور (فوکو، 1970 ) ساختارها دانش را به شکلی که از دوره رنسانس به دوره جدید تغییر می کنند وصف کرده است. همان طور که عقلانیت مطلق نبوده و نسبی است و به وسیله فرهنگ شکل می گیرد، آن چه آگاهی تلقی می گردد نیز در گذر سده ها تغییر یافته است. فوکو به منظور توصیف زمینه آگاهی، مفهوم معرفت را پیش می گذارد که مجموعه ای است از روابط ناخودآگاه اما مثبت و زایا که دانش در دل آن تولید و به طرزی عقلانی تعریف می شود (فوکو، 191:1974 ). فوکو گوید آن چه آگاهی به حساب می آید به مقدار زیاد متکی برعناصر خاص فرهنگی، اجتماعی، سیاسی، علمی و عناصر دیگر است ( همان : 7، 53 ). این عناصر دارای ارتباط متقابل اند و در سیلان مداوم با یکدیگر یا علیه یکدیگر عمل می کنند ؛ جوری که معنا به شکلی مداوم تعریف و باز تعریف می شوند (لاکلو و مومه، 1985: 106، 113 ). خود این عناصر نیز به موازات تغییر و تعریف مجدد ”علم“ یا ”فرهنگ“ تغییر می کنند. با وجود این فوکو در این جریان مداوم معنا، وجود همسازی کلان در تلاش فکری ادواری معین را تشخیص می دهد. این همسازی شکل گرفته از عناصر مرتبط، معنای اتحاد معرفت را تشکیل می دهد.

فوکو سه معرفت اصلی را شناسایی و توصیف کرده است که عبارتند از معرفتهای رنسانس، کلاسیک و مدرن. هر یک از اینها سرشتهای کاملاً اختصاصی داشت و انتقال از هر یک از آنها به معرفت بعدی نمایانگر یک تحول معرفت شناسی عظیم و انقطاعی بود به معنای بازنویسی کامل دانش.

فروزه های بنیادی معرفت رنسانس، تفسیرو شباهت بود و در مطالعه اشیاء روابط پنهان آنها با یکدیگر را می جستند. پایانی بر بازنگاری های این روابط نبود و این وضع باعث می شد این نوع معرفت چون « مجموعه ای از دانه های شن » بی انتها باشد (فوکو، 1970:30). شباهت بود که شناخت امورمشهود وغیر مشهود را ممکن و تفسیر متون را میسر ساخته استفاده بی پایان از نمادها را تنظیم می کرد.

شباهت همچون شکلی از تکرار و انعکاس دانسته می شد: زمین را بازتاب آسمان و صورتها را بازتاب ستارگان می شمردند (فوکو، 1970:17). جهان و هرچه دراوهست به شکلی مداوم و بی پایان و به صورتهائی بسیار متفاوت، که درواقع مخفی و سّری بودند، مرتبط با یکدیگر دانسته می شدند. این اسرار در صورتی هویدا می شدند که نشانه های سطحی و علائم مشهود چیزها به طرزی صحیح به معانی آنها ارتباط داده می شد. علت وجودی نشانه های مشهود را دلالت بر همسانی نامرئی و اغلب سرّی می شمردند(همان :26). گیاهان، درختان و دیگر چیزهای طبیعی که از اعماق زمین به دست می آیند، نظیر کتب متعدد جادو تعویذات دیده می شدند (همان :27).

ش 1 موزه فرانسس کالچولاری در ورونا بر گرفته از کتاب چروتی و چیوکو، 1622. چه روابطی موجب پیوند اشیاء ی متنوع موزه فرانسس کالچولاری در ورونا در آغاز قرن هفدهم می شدند؟ به احتمال فراوان "قرائت های" مجموعه ها شبکه های متعدد، شباهتهای پیچیده و احتمالاً مرموز را آشکار می ساخته است. نقش موزه امکان پذیر ساختن تفسیر و باز تفسیر شباهتهای نمایان در مجموعه ها بود تا نشان دهد چگونه هنر و طبیعت به انعکاس یکدیگر می پردازند.


اعمال تشکیل دهنده فرآیند دانستن عبارت بود از آن اشکال تفسیر که برخی از جنبه های شباهت اشیاء را هویدا می ساختند. فوکو به تفصیل به شرح این شباهت ها پرداخته است. شباهتها بر چهار نوعند. اولین آنها قرابت یا ترافق نمایانگر نزدیکی اشیاء یی است که می توان به سهولت در کنار هم قرار داد، جوری که لبه هاشان مماس یکدیگر باشند. زنجیره بزرگ هستی عصر الیزابت نمونه ای از پندار قرابت است (تیلیار، 1943). شباهت دوم رقابت است که نوعی از شباهت های قراردادی است که البته از بند قرابت رها شده می تواند از دور عمل کند، و در آن اشیا یی که دارای هیچ ارتباط همبرابری ظاهری نیستند می توانند از دور به واکنش نسبت به یکدیگر پردازند. شکل سوم شباهت قیاس مبتنی بر شباهت است که عبارت است از افزودن پیچیدهٔ شباهت های قرابتی و رقابتی به یکدیگر که می تواند موجب تعدادی بی شمار از روابط ناشی ازیک مبدا واحد گردد. آخرین شکل شباهت از طریق به کارگیری همدلی است که تمامی جهان را آزادانه در بر می گیرد و هیچ گونه محدودیت از قبل پیش بینی شده برای آن وضع نشده است. همدلی، تأثیر جنبشی است که آن چه را سنگین است به سوی زمین و آن چیزهایی را که سبک اند به سوی آسمان می کشاند. به عنوان مثال این همدلی است که گل آفتابگردان را قادر می سازد تا به سمت خورشید بچرخد و باعث می شود که ریشه های گیاه رشد کرده در جست و جوی آب برآیند. یک وظیفه بنیادی همدلی نزدیک کردن چیزها به هم و آشکار ساختن سنخیت آنهاست. مقابل همدلی، ناهمدلی است که موجب دور افتادن چیزها و مانع همسانی مطلق آنها می گردد. جنبشی که از تاثیر متقابل زوجهائی از همدلی – ناهمدلی ایجاد می شود و سه شکل دیگر شباهت را ایجاد می کند تمامی حجم جهان را توسط این فضای شباهت ها همبسته نگاه داشته حمایت و بازآفرینی می کند. فوکو گوید از این طریق است که جهان، یکسان باقی می ماند (فوکو، 25:1970). شباهت، سنخیت، پیوستگی ها و روابط ساختار بنیادی دانش است. دانستن یعنی فهم چگونگی همسانی چیزهای جهان با هر درجه از تفاوت ظاهری.

و در نشانه های نهاده شده بر سطح اشیاء است که این شباهتها و همسانی ها تشخیص داده می شود. جهان چیزی نیست جز عالمی از نشانه ها که باید خوانده شود و کار بی پایان تفسیر، ساختار بنیادی دانش را تشکیل می دهد.

هیأت بنیادی معرفت شناسی، ارجاع متقابل دادن علائم و شباهتهاست. دانش عبارت بود از آینده بینی . سحر و علوم باطنی از اجزای جدا نشدنی دانش بودند. در نتیجه این قرائت بی انتها، واژه ها و چیزها یکسان دانسته می شدند. در سنگها، جانوران و گیاهان نیز به همان اندازه زبان و خواندنی وجود داشت که در کتابها، و خواندن و نوشتن از فعالیت های خاص و ممتاز بودند.

فوکو معرفت دوره رنسانس را فزونی خواه و در عین حال فقر زده توصیف می کند و آن را بی حد و مرز می داند ؛ زیرا که شباهت هیچ گاه از ثبات برخوردار نبوده بلکه روابطی بی انتها دانسته می شد. این معرفت از نوع متشکل از انباشت پیکربندیهایی یکسره متکی بر یکدیگر بود. به همین علت هیچ گوهر واقعی و هیچ وسیله درستی سنجی در اختیار نبود. افسانه، قصّه، بدعت گذاری و امور مادی جملگی امکانات فهم شباهتها و ارتباطها را در اختیار می گذاردند. هیچ یک را نمی شد به درد نخوردانست ؛ زیرا که همه آنها بالقوه " درست " دانسته می شد.

اشکال دانش دوره رنسانس که فوکو آنها را به صورت اشکال مدور بزرگی که شباهتها در آنها محاط شده بودند توصیف می کند در سالهای اولیه قرن هفدهم بناگاه دستخوش گسستگی گردید. اشکال دقیق شده و بسط یافته دانش در قرون وسطی با اتّکایشان بر گردآوری برهانهای مشکوک و غیر قابل درستی سنجی و عاری از هرگونه تمایز میان آن چه به چشم دیده و آن چه در متون خوانده شده بود، دیگر در عصری که سفرهای اکتشافی و آزمایش با مواد طبیعی اطلاعات جدیدی در دسترس قرار می داد، قابل دفاع نبود. در قرن هفدهم "تنها چیزی که از معرفت دورهٔ رنسانس باقی مانده بودبازیهائی چند بود؛ رویاها و جاذبه های دانشی که هنوز علمی نبود" (فوکو، 51:1970 ). اینک شباهت به عنوان کارکرد اصلی دانش تجربی به صورتی آشفته و بی نظم درک می شد.

معرفت کلاسیک طرحی محدود تر برای خود تعیین کرد. ساختار بنیادین آن نظمی بود که از طریق سنجش و طراحی مجموعه های سلسله مراتبی تحصیل می شد. جدول طبقه بندی به عنوان ساختار بنیادی دانش پدیدار شد ( فوکو، 74:1970 ). فعالیت ذهن، یعنی دانستن، دیگر از نزدیک کردن چیزها به یکدیگر تشکیل نمی شد بلکه شاکله آن جدا کردن چیزها از یکدیگر و متمایز ساختن آنها بر اساس تفاوتها بود. دانستن به معنای تمییز بود و این تمییز از طریق تفکیک جهان بی پایانِ شباهتها به دو بخش صورت می گرفت: در یک سو تقسیم بندیها، رده بندیها و سلسله مراتبهای دانش قرار داشت و در دیگر سو، مواد خام بی انتهایی که طبیعت در جهت تجزیه امور به صورت تقسیمات و پراکندگی ها در اختیار می گذارد. نظریه و طبیعت، هستی و دانش، مبدل به دو بخش تشکیل دهنده جهان شدند که اینک درک آن بیشتر از طریق تحلیل واقع گرایانه صورت می گرفت نه تجربه ذهنی.

یک جدول طبقه بندی اصل قرار گرفت و بر مبنای آن همه اشیاء طیبعی مرتب شده و طبق ویژگیهای مشهودشان در چند دسته گروه بندی گردیدند. این گروه بندی بصری ”مجموعه هایی“ ایجاد کرد که روابط آنها با یکدیگر از طریق تخصیص جایگاهی معین در جدول طبقه بندی توصیف گردید. بر این مبنا به عنوان مثال در باغ وحشها حیوانات در داخل قفسهایی طبقه بندی شدند که روابط رده های آنها از طریق نحوه استقرار نشان داده شود. در کتابخانه ها، کتابها را به گونه ای دسته بندی کردند که از طریق رابطه مادی میان آنها رده بندیهایی ایجاد شود. فضای جدول طبقه بندی دوبعدی از پیش به معرفی کلیه روابط ممکن میان اشیاء پرداخت و در پی آن به منظور شناسایی سلسله های مراتب مورد بررسی بصری قرار گرفت.

عصر کلاسیک به نفی پیچیدگی معرفت رنسانس پرداخت و کوشش کرد تا دانشی ساده اما قابل درستی سنجی تام ارائه نماید. در جدول طبقه بندی، نظم از طریق ویژگیهای مشهود اشیاء ارائه شد. سرمشق گیاهشناسی شناسایی خانواده های گیاهان بر دیگر اشکال دانش تحمیل گردید. به این ترتیب پزشکان نیز در پاسخ آسیب شناسی به استفاده از شیوه ی گیاهشناسی پرداختند. دانش که در گذشته بی حد و مرز دانسته می شد، اینک تعریف پذیر و از طریق انجام آزمایش قابل بررسی بود. حالا امکان تعین حدود از طریق شناسائی درست سلسله مراتب ها و مجموعه ها به وجود آمد. چنانچه می شد رابطه دقیق شیئی باشیئی دیگر، یا واژه ای با شیئی، یکبار برای همیشه تعین شود در آنصورت مبنائی استوار برای دانستن ایجاد می شد. می شد این دانش را با اطمینان و به شیوه ای به کار برد که در مورد دانشی که از قرن شانزدهم به میراث برده شده بود میسر نبود. برای تحقق کارآمدی راستین این دانش لازم بود تمام دانشمندان در مورد روابط و هویت های بنیادی آن توافق داشته باشند. با بالا گرفتن استفاده از زبانهای بومی دانشمندان دیگر توانائی گفتگو با یکدیگر را نداشتند. طرحی بهر زبانی بین المللی پیشنهاد شد که در آن تقسیمات ثابت و پذیرفته واژگان با تقسیمات مشابه اشیاء طبیعی پشتیبانی می شد.

اما این شکل از دانستن نیز بی نقص نبود. امکان مرتبط ساختن تمامی اشیاء جهان به یکدیگر بر اساس تفاوتهای مشهود در جدول کلان مسطح وجود نداشت. ضمن اینکه نمی شد زبانی ابداع کرد که در آن هر واژه برابری به صورت شکلی مادی داشته باشد. برای ما که امروزه در پایان عصر مدرن فوکو زندگی می کنیم سعی در انجام چنین چیزی خنده دار به نظر می رسد. دیگر زبان را نمایانگر اشیاء نمی دانیم. در عوض "می دانیم" واژه ها معرف اندیشه ها یند. زبان به جای ارتباط با مادیت طبیعت با فعالیت ذهن ارتباط دارد.

در پایان قرن هجدهم فضای دانش یک بار دیگر دچار گسستگی شد. مشاهده کردیم که چگونه شکلهای مدور شباهتهای قرن شانزدهم متلاشی و مبدل به جدولهای مسطح همسانی و تفاوتها شد(فوکو،217:1970). اکنون این جدول مسطح تفاوتها دگرسان گردید و مبدل به فضائی سه بعدی شد که درآن "حیطه عام دانش دیگر حیطه همسانی ها و تفاوتها و تقسیمات غیر کمی، توصیف جهان شمول، تقسیم بندی عام دانش سنجش ناپذیر نبود بلکه حیطه ای متشکل از ساختارهای اساسی، یعنی روابط درونی میان عناصری بود که کمیت آنها یک کارکرد را تشکیل می دهد"(همان،218).

معرفت مدرن اشیاء طبیعی (یا هرشیء دیگر ) را صرفاً به علت شکل ظاهری نمی فهمد بلکه در پی فهم این است که چرا اشیاء چنین اند که به نظر می آیند. اشیاء دیگر قطعات ساده ای نیستند که بتوان در سطح سسلسله مراتب های یک سطحی جا به جا کرد ،بلکه به صورت ساختارهایی سازمان دار با انواعی از سطوح پیچیدگی متفاوت و انواعی از روابط متفاوت با یکدیگر، تعدادی در یک سطح و تعدادی در سطحی دیگر،درک می شوند. اصول سازماندهی فضای سه بعدی جدید قیاس و توالی است و اکنون رابطه میان یک ساختار سازمان دار با ساختار سازمان دار دیگر یکسانی چندین جزء نیست بلکه همسانی روابط میان اجزاء و نقشهایی است که ایفا می کنند. در این فرایند پرسش گری درباره روابط اجزا با یکدیگر بود که فلسفه زاده شد.

در قرنهای هفدهم و هجدهم کسانی که به تقسیم بندی اشیاء می اندیشیدند، از طریق مقایسه ساختارهای مشهود به سنجش مقادیر تفاوت می پرداختند و در قرن نوزدهم ساختاری بسامان اصل ساماندهی را تقویت و تامین کرد. ساختار بسامان در مورد خانواده های بزرگ گیاهان وجانوران از طریق بنیادی ترین ویژگیهای حیات آنها، نه مشهود ترینشان ،نشان داده شد. این ویژگیها به کارکردهای هر یک از آنها ارتباط داده شد(فوکو،228:1980). اینک ویژگیهای مشهود گیاهان و جانوران بر حسب نقش کارکردی آنها توضیح داده می شد. به این ترتیب ارتباطهایی میان ساختار دندانهای یک جانور گوشتخوار و ساختار مناسب پاها پنجه ها و روده های آن برقرار شد.

مفهوم زندگی برای تنظیم تقسیم بندی موجودات طبیعی ضرورت یافت. لازم شد که نشانه های ظاهری در ارتباط اعماق جسم فهمیده شوند. می بایست آن چه مشهود بود به نامشهودها ارتباط داده شود. دیگر معنای طبقه بندی ارجاع امور مشهود به خود آنها نبود و وظیفه معرفی همه اجزا بر عهده یکی گذارده نمی شد. اینک طبقه بندی در اقدامی که شیوه تحلیل را به بعد سوم می کشاند به معنای مرتبط ساختن مشاهده شده ها با مشاهده نشده ها و در پی آن حرکت مجدد از ساختارهای نادیده به نشانه های مشهودی بود که روی سطح اجسام و اشیاء به چشم می خورد. اینک این ساختارهای نامشهود،این مسببهای عمیق تر، مثل قرن شانزدهم به صورت متون سری یا شباهتهای پنهان فهمیده نمی شدند: حالا این اعماق به صورت ویژگیهای یک ساختار منسجم بسامان فهمیده می شدند. جست و جو برای یافتن مسبب ها و ساختارهای بسامان به این معنا بود که به عنوان مثال در شناخت جهان طبیعی دوره تاریخ طبیعی به پایان آمد و زیست شناسی آغاز شد.

در آغاز قرن نوزدهم – همانطور که در آثار دکارت، دیدرو ولایب نیتس دیده می شود- هنوز این فکر که ایجاد مجموعه ای کامل و پیوسته از دانش امکان پذیر است معتبر دانسته می شد(فوکو،247:1970). اما به گفته فوکو طرح دانشنامه وار پیشنهادی این دانشمندان که مبتنی بر فکر جدول طبقه بندی کامل بود تا حد "درخشش سطحی بر فراز مغاکی ژرف" فرو کاهید(همان:251).

در درون مغاک روابط متقابل پیچیده تحلیل و اندیشه فلسفی قرار داشت. عصر جدید، پیدایش علمِ انسان را ممکن ساخت. علوم انسانی به پرسشگری درباره اشیاء و روابط پرداختند. مسائل ظنی و بحث انگیز مطرح شدند، و شیوه ها و رویکردهای نو پدید آمد. شکلی از پرسشگری مبتنی بر این پرسشها پدیدار شد که چرا اشیاء بدین صورت اند که هستند. عمل دانستن عبارت بود از پرسش، تحلیل ونشان دادن روابط بسامان و کارکردی میان اشیاء مادی . دیگرصرف قرار دادن اشیاء در قرابتهای مادی به منظور نشان دادن ارتباطهای نگاتنگ میان آنها کفایت نمی کرد. اینک دانش خواستار روشن شدن روابط عمیق ترنزدیک تر و بنیادی تر بودو از آن جا که یافتن روابط عمیق تر میان اشیاء مطلوب واقع گردید پرسشهای فلسفی درباره ماهیت بشر پیش کشیده شد.

سه نوع معرفتی که فوکو مطرح کرد از جهات متعدد و به طرزی چشمگیر نامحتمل به نظر می رسند. یقیناً این معرفتها مسائل و رویکردهایی را مطرح ساختند که در هیچ یک از تلاش های مربوط به پژوهش در تاریخچهٔ موزه ها مورد استفاده قرار نگرفته اند. با این همه پژواک هایی شوق انگیز وجود دارند. فوکو در برخی موارد به بحث درباره موزه ها نزدیک می شود. وی از مجموعه های تاریخ طبیعی و باغ وحشها سخن می گوید. از طرح دانشنامه یاد می کند. و البته نظم امور وی یکسره راجع به شیوه شناخت و درک اشیاء است. اگر معرفتهای غیر عادی فوکو به هر طریق امکان تحقق داشتندچه نوع موزه هایی پدید می آمد؟ و چه نوع کارکرد هایی می داشتند؟ همانطور که اشاره شده کسی که توصیف فوکو از معرفتهای متفاوت در نظم امور را بپذیرد پی توضیحاتی خواهد گشت که با دیگر توصیف های "اشیاء" نیازمند توضیح تفاوت بسیار خواهد داشت (داویدسون،223:1986 ).

در ارتباط با "تاریخچه موزه" آثار تاریخ نگاری که از دیدگاهی نظری نگاشته شده باشند،انگشت شمارند و آن دست تاریخچه هایی که تاکنون نگاشته شده اند نه برای شرح زمینه معرفت شناسی موزه ها و نه از موضع تاریخ کارآمد تالیف شده اند.

"تاریخچه های" موزه ها

در حال حاضر دو نمونه تاریخچه موزه ها به چشم می خورد. یکی شرح فراگیر و دانشنامه واری که در آن شرح " تحول" موزه ها ترتیبی گاهشمارانه و افزایش یابنده دارند. تاریخ های الکساندر(1979)، بازین(1967)، تیلور(1948)، ون هُلست(1967)، موری(1904) و ویتلین(1949 ؛1970) از این دست اند. در کنار این تاریخچه ها، روایاتی درباره اشخاص منفرد مجموعه دار (الکساندر،1983؛ادواردز،1870) یا راجع به تاریخچه موسسات منفرد (بازین،1959؛ کیگیل،1981؛ گاولد،1965؛کلسمن، 1971؛ مک گرکور،1983)وجود دارد. اینها جملگی در چارچوب "تاریخ سنتی" نگاشته شده اند (فوکو، 1977ج:153) و اتکای خود بر مطلق ها و اعتقاد خود به فاعل آفرینشگر اشراقی را حفظ کرده اند.

در تمامی این تاریخچه ها کانون محدود توصیف مورد نیاز است تا الزامات درج بن مایه های خاص در چارچوب هویت موجودِ کاملا" تثبیت یافته (موزه) بر آورده شود و همین است که موجب نبود تحلیل انتقادی ازعناصرخاص موردبحث می شود. نتیجه شکل گیری تاریخی است "بی خطر" و بی جدل که صد البته همواره در کار بوده است. به عنوان نمونه ای از این دست تاریخ، کیگیل می نویسد: " سِر هانس اسلون (1753-1660)، "پدر" موزه ملی انگلستان ، پزشگی بود که گفته اند در کیلیلیگ کانتی داون زاده و در 1683 در اُرنج پزشگ شده بود. عشق اسلون به گرد آوری پس از انتخاب به عنوان پزشگ شخصی فرماندار جدید جامائیکا، دوک آلبمرال، در سال 1687 بالا گرفت" (کیگیل،5: 1981). این شرح تا بدان جا می رود که بگوید " اسلون درترویج مایه کوبی آبله و رواج دادن مصرف شیر-شکلات" نقشی مهم داشت.

این "تاریخ متعارف" از شرایط خاصی که تحت آن "عشق به گردآوری" اسلون توانایی بالاگرفتن یافت نمی پرسد، همینطور از ربط میان اعمالی به ظاهر متفاوت چون مایه کوبی آبله و آشامیدن شیر-شکلات. روایتی جدید تر (دبی دین، 1987) رابطه ای میان ازدواج اسلون با زنی جامائیکائی که ثروتی به میراث برده بود، پرداختن وی به برده فروشی و توانگری وی در گرد آوری مجموعه ها می پردازد. در حالی که نگارش تاریخچه کار آمد موزه انگلستان متضمن انتخاب یک چارچوب زمانی مشخص و شناسائی کلیه عوامل گوناگون تشکیل دهنده هویت "موزه" در آن برهه خاص است. در چنین تاریخی تـاثیرات عناصر متفاوت چون پرداختن به برده فروشی، به دست آوردن سرمایه های کلان، سفر به هند غربی و جز آن می بایست بر اساس نقش خاص هر یک مورد ارزیابی قرار گیرد. افزون بر این آن جنبه ها که عموما" "تاریخی" شمرده نمی شود ( جنبه هائی چون عشق، وجدان، غریزه ها، خودپسندی و تن) را مجزا کرده جداگانه بررسی میکنند (فوکو 149، 149:ج1977).

اخیرا" موزه داران دست اندر کار پژوهش، آثاری مفصل تر و عالمانه تر نگاشته اند، چرا که نگارندگان خود در گیر مباحثی اند که تاریخشان را می نویسند (مک گرگور، 1983؛ ایمپی و مک گرگور، 1985؛ شیموک، 1984؛ هیل، 1986؛ نیکلسون و وارهرست، 1984). این گونه آثار از بسیاری جهات بسیار مفید تر از تاریخ های کلی و فراگیر موزه اند چرا که تمرکزی بیشتر داشته و جزئیات بیشتری را از موارد خاص به دست می دهند. نمونه ای از این دست مقاله ای است در باره جوزف می یر که بزرگ ترین مجموعه اهدائی را در سال 1867 به موزه لیورپول که اینک بخشی ازموزه ها و گالری های ملی مرسی ساید است تقدیم داشت. می گویند این مجموعه از 14.000شئی تشکیل می شود: عتیقه های پیش از تاریخ، مصری،کلاسیک، اتروسکی، پروئی و مکزیکی، نسخه های سده های میانی و پس از آن، آثاری ازعاج، مینا، قلابدوزی، سفال، ساعت دیواری و مچی، سلاح و زره و اشیاء قوم نگاری. (نیکلسن و وارهرست، 1984). نمونه ای دیگر از این دست بررسی "کابینت" بونیه د لاماسون (44-1702) در پاریس در حدود سال 1740 است، که به کمک مجموعه ای از طرح ها، شرحی از همان دوران و یک کاتالوگ فروش عملی شد (هیل، 1986).

این جستار در برخی موارد کاوشگرانه است و می تواند در تمرکزش بر مدارک معاصر( به عنوان مثال ولش، 1983) مطلبی مفید برای نگارش تاریخ کار آمد در اختتیار گذارد، هر چند در بسیاری موارد تحریف پرسشهای این اسناد معاصر (فوکو، 1974:6) باعث دوری از اظهار نظر در مورد نکات بسیار انتقادی که خود مدارک مطرح می کنند شده است. از اینجاست که به عنوان مثال مک گرگور در مورد جان ترادسانت می نویسد: "سه سال بعد وی به اولین دیدار از ویرجینیا پرداخت، که چنین ثبت شده: "در1637 جان ترادسانت (کذا) در مستعمره نشین بود تا به گرد آوری همه نوع گلها، گیاهان و صدفهای کمیاب پردازد" (مک گرگور، 1983:11). مدارک به منظور باز سازی سرگذشت جان ترادسانت، "پدر" موزه اشمولین کاویده می شود، تاریخی مبتنی بر فاعلی تمرکزگرا و تعالی خواه. تاریخچه کارآمد، که از درون روی دبیزه ها کار می کند، با طرح این پرسش که کدام مجموعه ها تن به تحلیل می سپارند به سر هم کردن دبیزه ها به منظور ارائه زندگینامه توصیفی "مجموعه داری" واحد نمی پردازد، بلکه می تواند مجموعه هائی را کنار هم بگذارد تا نشان دهد چگونه مستعمره سازی پیدایش طیف خاصی از مواضع فاعلی، یا مجموعه خاصی از فن آوریها را امکان پذیر ساخت که در کنار یکدیگر تا حدودی سبب ساز دگر سان سازی روش های گرد آوری اشیاء مادی در یک محل زمین-تاریخی معین شدند.

هر کجا هم پژوهش های راستین و مفصل آرشیوی صورت گرفته در معرض این خطربوده اند که نتایج به شیوه ای نشان داده شوند که نمایانگرتمایل به کم اهمیت نشان دادن ویژگی های دقیق و تفاوت های یافته ها باشد. تازگی کارهای زیادی در باره "موزه های" پایان قرن شانزدهم و آغاز قرن هفدهم اروپا به شکلی کلی صورت گرفته است. برخی از آنها در پی برگزاری کنفرانسی در مورد خاستگاه موزه ها گرد آوری شد. ویراستاران نتیجه گیری های منحصر بفرد و نو آوری های بخش بزرگتر پژوهشهای مقالات را در دیباچه خود که سعی در جا اندازی تاریخی خطی و مستمر از "موزه ای" ماهیت گرا دارد نادیده می گیرند. گرد آورندگان می گویند از آغازسده شانزدهم، " حتی با توجه کافی به گذر سالها هیچ دشواری در پذیرش این معنا وجود ندارد که به لحاظ نقش چیز زیادی تغییر نکرده است" (همان:1). "نقش" موزه را "نگهداری و دسته بندی آثار مردم و طبیعت" می دانستند. این تعریف این حقیقت را نادیده می گذارد که در کار "نگهداری و دسته بندی" دقیقا" اصول گزینش و طبقه بندی است که از بن تغییر کرده است. به عنوان مثال بیشتر موزه های امروزی، تقریبا" به گزینش از میان اشیاء کهنه می پردازند و در پیوند دادن اشیاء جدید با روشهای مالوف دیرین با دشواری بی پایان روبرویند (بورن، 1985؛ جونز، 1985). بحث های بی پایان بر سر "گرد آوری قرن بیستمی" یا " گردآوری آثار معاصر" (گرین، 1985؛ ساجیت، 1985؛ دیویس، 1985؛ امبروز و کاواناگ، 1986؛ اشلرت، 1989) نمایانگر مشکلاتی است که برخی موزه ها در تجسم "نقش" خود به شکلی متفاوت با گذشته دارند. همانطور که مقاله های گرد آوری شده به خوبی نشان داده اند بسیاری از اشیاء مهم که در"موزه های" قرن شانزدهم گرد آوری می شد در واقع معاصر بودند، از جمله به عنوان مثال مواد و اشیاء نفیسی که به تازگی وارد شده بود(شایشر،1985:33)؛ زیور، سلاح و پوشاک نقاط "تازه یافت" گیتی (ایمی و دیگران، 1985)؛ و ابزارهائی برای دادن سفارش ساخت به بسیاری از ارباب حرف و مشاغل عصر (منهاوزن، 1985:71).

منهاوزن در ادامه گوید اطاق هنر الکتور آگوستوس در درسدن سده ی هفدهم "موزه به معنای نمایشگاه محض نبود بلکه مجموعه ای کاری بشمار می رفت، با محل هائی برای کار کردن، به ویژه کارهای فنی در خودِ اطاق هنر. افزون بر این مجموعه بسیاری قطعات را در خود جای داده بود که خود الکتور و پسرش ساخته بودند. همچنین به این نکته اشاره می شود که اطاق هنر ابزار، کتاب و خرج کار به هنر کارانی که اشیائی برای مجموعه موزه می ساختند می داد ( منهاوزن، 1985:73). هیچ شباهتی با موزه امروزی به چشم نمی خورد. تلاشِ یافتن وحدت به منظور شناسائی هویتی بنیادی برای موزه تنوع سرشار امور را پنهان ساخته امکاناتی را که می تواند امروزه بکار آید پوشیده می دارد.

دیگر روشهای رایج موزه های امروزی در "موزه های سده شانزدهم" به چشم می خورد. "مجموعه های مرجع ابزارهای اساسی پژوهش طبیعت گرایان نخستین بود" (ایمپی و مک گرگور،1985:1). "دانشمندان فورا" از انتشار مطالب در مورد نمونه هائی که در اختیار معاصرانشتن بود بهره می گرفتند- ترتیبی که امروزه نیز همین درجه از اهمیت را حفظ کرده است" (همان،:2). هر دو گفته سعی در باز سازی حال در گذشته دارد. تاریخچه "متعارف" در تکاپوی آن است که نشان دهد چگونه امور در گذر سده ها تغییری نکرده است. پرسش این است که اگر تاریخ "کارآمد" موزه با بهره گیری از "معرفت های" فوکو نگاشته شود این تاریخچه های موزه چه تغییراتی پیدا می کنند.

۱۳۸۸ خرداد ۱۸, دوشنبه

ساینو-ایرانیکا اثرجاوید برتولت لوفر



نگارنده پانزده بیست سال پیش، هشتاد سالی پس از انتشار متن اصلی انگلیسی، آنرا به پارسی در آورد و هنوز چشم انتظار انتشار آن توسط مرکز نشر دانشگاهی است.. اینک متن اصلی را در آستان دوستان می گذارم.




Full text of "Sino-Iranica; Chinese contributions to the history of civilization in ancient Iran, with special reference to the history of cultivated plants and products" 

THE LIBRARY 




OF 




THE UNIVERSITY 

OF CALIFORNIA 










ALFRED L. KROEBER 

COLLECTION 













FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 




PUBLICATION 201 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SERIES VOL. XV, No. 3 










SI NO-IRAN ICA 










Chinese* Contributions to the History of Civilization 

in Ancient Iran 




With Special Reference to the History of 

Cultivated Plants and Products 










BY 




BERTHOLD |LAUFER 




Curator of Anthropology 










The Blackstone Expedition 













CHICAGO 

1919 










I / 










FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 




PUBLICATION 201 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SERIES VOL. XV, No. 3 










SINO-IRANICA 










Chinese Contributions to the History of Civilization 

in Ancient Iran 




With Special Reference to the History of 

Cultivated Plants and Products 










BY 




BERTHOLD LAUFER 




Curator of Anthropology 










The Blackstone Expedition 













CHICAGO 

1919 










ft 










CAK I n 




SCIENCES 

Add'1 










CONTENTS 




PAGE 




INTRODUCTION ............... 185 




SlNO-lRANICA ................ 208 




ALFALFA ................. 208 




THE GRAPE-VINE .............. 220 




THE PISTACHIO ............... 246 




THE WALNUT ............... 254 




THE POMEGRANATE .............. 276 




SESAME AND FLAX .............. 288 




THE CORIANDER ............... 297 




THE CUCUMBER ............... 300 




CHIVE, ONION, AND SHALLOT ........... 302 




GARDEN PEA AND BROAD BEAN .......... 305 




SAFFRON AND TURMERIC ............ 309 




SAFFLOWER ................ 324 




JASMINE ................. 329 




HENNA ................. 334 




THE BALSAM-POPLAR ............. 339 




MANNA ....... ...... > 343 




ASAFOETIDA ................ 353 




GALBANUM ................ 363 




OAK-GALLS ................ 367 




INDIGO ................. 370 




RICE .................. 372 




PEPPER ................. 374 




SUGAR ................ . 376 




MYROBALAN ... ............. 378 




THE "GOLD PEACH" ............. 379 




F U-TSE ................. 379 




BRASSICA ...... ....... ; . . . 380 




CUMMIN ................. 383 




THE DATE-PALM .............. 385 




THE SPINACH ............... 392 




SUGAR BEET AND LETTUCE 










RICINUS ............. .... 403 




THE ALMOND ................ 405 




THE FIG ...... ........... 410 




THE OLIVE ...... .......... 415 










111 














650 










iv CONTENTS 




PAGE 




CASSIA PODS AND CAROB 420 




NARCISSUS 427 




THE BALM OF GILEAD 429 




NOTE ON THE LANGUAGE OF FU-LIN 435 




THE WATER-MELON 438 




FENUGREEK 446 




NUX-VOMICA 448 




THE CARROT 451 




AROMATICS 455 




Spikenard, p. 455. Storax, p. 456. Myrrh, p. 460. Putchuck, p. 462. Styrax 

benjoin, p. 464. 




THE MALAYAN PO-SE AND ITS PRODUCTS 468 




Alum, p. 474. Lac, p. 475. Camphor, p. 478. Aloes, p. 480. Amomum, p. 481. 

P, o-lo-te, p. 482. Psoralea, p. 483. Ebony, p. 485. 




PERSIAN TEXTILES 488 




Brocades, p. 488. Rugs, p. 492. Yue no, p. 493. Woolen Stuffs, p. 496. Asbestos, 

p. 498. 




IRANIAN MINERALS, METALS, AND PRECIOUS STONES . . . 503 




Borax, p. 503. Sal Ammoniac, p. 503. Litharge, p. 508. Gold, p. 509. Oxides 

of Copper, p. 510. Colored Salt, p. 511. Zinc, p. 511. Steel, p. 515. 

Se-se, p. 516. Emerald, p. 518. Turquois, p. 519. Lapis Lazuli, p. 520. 

Diamond, p. 521. Amber, p. 521. Coral, p. 523. Bezoar, p. 525. 




TITLES OF THE SASANIAN GOVERNMENT 529 




iRANO-SlNICA 535 




The Square Bamboo, p. 535. Silk, p. 537. Peach and Apricot, p. 539. Cinnamon, 

p. 541. Zedoary, p. 544. Ginger, p. 545. Mamiran, p. 546. Rhubarb, p. 547. 

Salsola, p. 551. Emblic Myrobalan, p. 551. Althaea, p. 551. Rose of China, 

p. 551. Mango, p. 552. Sandal, p. 552. Birch, p. 552. Tea, p. 553. Onyx, 

p. 554. Tootnague, p. 555. Saltpetre, p. 555. Kaolin, p. 556. Smilax pseudo- 

china, p. 556. Rag-paper, p. 557. Paper Money, p. 559. Chinese Loan-Worda 

in Persian, p. 564. The Chinese in the Alexander Romance, p. 570. 




APPENDIX I IRANIAN ELEMENTS IN MONGOL 572 




APPENDIX II CHINESE ELEMENTS IN TURKI 577 




APPENDIX III THE INDIAN ELEMENTS IN THE PERSIAN PHARMA- 

COLOGY OF ABU MANSUR MUWAFFAQ . . . 580 




APPENDIX IV THE BASIL 586 




APPENDIX V ADDITIONAL NOTES ON LOAN-WORDS IN TIBETAN 591 




GENERAL INDEX 599 




BOTANICAL INDEX 617 




INDEX OF WORDS . . .621 










Sino-Iranica 




BY BERTHOLD LAUFER 




INTRODUCTION 




If we knew as much about the culture of ancient Iran as about 

ancient Egypt or Babylonia, or even as much as about India or China, 

our notions of cultural developments in Asia would probably be widely 

different from what they are at present. The few literary remains left 

to us in the Old-Persian inscriptions and in the Avesta are insufficient 

to retrace an adequate picture of Iranian life and civilization; and, 

although the records of the classical authors add a few touches here 

and there to this fragment, any attempts at reconstruction, even 

combined with these sources, will remain unsatisfactory. During the 

last decade or so, thanks to a benign dispensation of fate, the Iranian 

horizon has considerably widened: important discoveries made in 

Chinese Turkistan have revealed an abundant literature in two hitherto 

unknown Iranian languages, the Sogdian and the so-called Eastern 

Iranian. 1 We now know that Iranian peoples once covered an immense 

territory, extending all over Chinese Turkistan, migrating into China, 

coming in contact with Chinese, and exerting a profound influence on 

nations of other stock, notably Turks and Chinese. The Iranians were 

the great mediators between the West and the East, conveying the 

heritage of Hellenistic ideas to central and eastern Asia and trans- 

mitting valuable plants and goods of China to the Mediterranean area. 

Their activity is of world-historical significance, but without the 

records of the Chinese we should be unable to grasp the situation 

thoroughly. The Chinese were positive utilitarians and always inter- 

ested in matters of reality: they have bequeathed to us a great amount 

of useful information on Iranian plants, products, animals, minerals, 

customs, and institutions, which is bound to be of great service to 

science. 




The following pages represent Chinese contributions to the history 

of civilization in Iran, which aptly fill a lacune in our knowledge of 

Iranian tradition. Chinese records dealing with the history of Iranian 

peoples also contain numerous transcriptions of ancient Iranian words, 




1 Cf., for instance, P. PELLIOT, Influences iraniennes en Asie centrale et en 

Extreme-Orient (Paris, 1911). 




185 










1 86 SlNO-lRANICA 




part of which have tested the ingenuity of several sinologues and 

historians; but few of these Sino-Iranian terms have been dealt with 

accurately and adequately. While a system for the study of Sino- 

Sanskrit has been successfully established, Sino-Iranian has been 

woefully neglected. The honor of having been the first to apply the 

laws of the phonology of Old Chinese to the study of Sino-Iranica is 

due to ROBERT GAUTHIOT. 1 It is to the memory of this great Iranian 

scholar that I wish to dedicate this volume, as a tribute of homage not only 

to the scholar, but no less to the man and hero who gave his life for 

France. 2 Gauthiot was a superior man, a kiiin-tse %* -J* in the sense of 

Confucius, and every line he has written breathes the mind of a thinker 

and a genius. I had long cherished the thought and the hope that I 

might have the privilege of discussing with him the problems treated 

on these pages, which would have considerably gained from his sagacity 

and wide experience ^^A^^Wlfnti. 




f Iranian geographical and tribal names have hitherto been identified 

on historical grounds, some correctly, others inexactly, but an attempt 

to restore the Chinese transcriptions to their correct Iranian prototypes 

has hardly been made. A great amount of hard work remains to be 

done in this field. 3 In my opinion, it must be our foremost object first 

to record the Chinese transcriptions as exactly as possible in their 

ancient phonetic garb, according to the method so successfully inaugu- 

rated and applied by P. Pelliot and H. Maspero, and then to proceed 

from this secure basis to the reconstruction of the Iranian model. 

The accurate restoration of the Chinese form in accordance with 










1 Cf. his Quelques termes techniques bouddhiques et maniche'ens, Journal 

asiatique, 1911, II, pp. 49-67 (particularly pp. 59 et seq.), and his contributions to 

Chavannes and Pelliot, Traite" maniche'en, pp. 27, 42, 58, 132. 




1 Gauthiot died on September u, 1916, at the age of forty, from the effects of a 

wound received as captain of infantry while gallantly leading his company/ to a 

grand attack, during the first offensive of Artois in the spring of 1915. Cf. the 

obituary notice by A. MEILLET in Bull, de la Sociitt de Linguistique, No. 65, 

pp. 127-132. 




8 I hope to take up this subject in another place, and so give only a few examples 

here. Ta-ho wi 31 -|fj ^fC is the Ta-ho River on which Su-li, the capital of Persia, 

was situated (Sui Su, Ch. 83, p. 7 b). HIRTH (China and the Roman Orient, pp. 198, 

313; also Journal Am. Or. Soc., Vol. XXXIII, 1913, p. 197), by means of a Cantonese 

Tat-hot, has arrived at the identification with the Tigris, adding an Armenian 

Deklath and Pliny's Diglito. Chinese ta, however, corresponds neither to ancient 

ti nor de, but only to *tat, dat, dad, dar, d'ar, while ho -Ig represents *hat, kat, kad, 

kar, kal. We accordingly have *Dar-kat, or, on the probable assumption that a 

metathesis has taken place, *Dak-rat. Hence, as to the identification with the Tigris, 

the vocalism of the first syllable brings difficulties: it is * both in Old Persian and in 

Babylonian. Old Persian Tigram (with an alteration due to popular etymology, cf. 

Avestan tiyriS. Persian fir, "arrow") is borrowed from Babylonian Di-ik-lat (that 










INTRODUCTION 187 




rigid phonetic principles is the essential point, and means much more 

than any haphazardly made guesses at identification. Thus Mu-lu 

/fCB, name of a city on the eastern frontier of An-si (Parthia), 1 has 

been identified with Mouru (Muru, Merw) of the Avesta. 2 Whether 

this is historically correct, I do not wish to discuss here; from an his- 

torical viewpoint the identification may be correct, but from a phonetic 

viewpoint it is not acceptable, for Mu-lu corresponds to ancient *Muk- 

luk, Mug-ruk, Bug-luk, Bug-rug, to be restored perhaps to *Bux-rux. 3 

The scarcity of linguistic material on the Iranian side has imposed 

certain restrictions: names for Iranian plants, one of the chief subjects 

of this study, have been handed down to us to a very moderate extent, 

so that in many cases no identification can be attempted. I hope, 

however, that Iranian scholars will appreciate the philological con- 

tributions of the Chinese to Iranian and particularly Middle-Persian 

lexicography, for in almost every instance it is possible to restore with 

a very high degree of certainty the primeval Iranian forms from which 

the Chinese transcriptions were accurately made. The Chinese scholars 

had developed a rational method and a fixed system in reproducing 

words of foreign languages, in the study of which, as is well known, 

they took a profound interest; and from day to day, as our experience 

widens, we have occasion to admire the soundness, solidity, and con- 

sistency of this system. The same laws of transcription worked out 

for Sanskrit, Malayan, Turkish, Mongol, and Tibetan, hold good also 

for Iranian. I have only to ask Iranian scholars to have confidence in 

our method, which has successfully stood many tests. I am convinced 

that this plea is unnecessary for the savants of France, who are the 










is, Dik-lat, Dik-rat), which has passed into Greek Tiypijs and Ti-ypis and Elamite 

Ti-ig-ra (A. MEILLET, Grammaire du vieux perse, p. 72). It will thus be seen that 

the Chinese transcription * Dak-rat corresponds to Babylonian Dik-rat, save the 

vowel of the first element, which cannot yet be explained, but which will surely be 

traced some day to an Iranian dialect. The T'ai p'in hwan yil ki (Ch. 185, p. 19) 

gives four geographical names of Persia, which have not yet been indicated. The 

first of these is the name of a city in the form | | j Ho-p'o-kie, *Hat(r, 1)- 

bwa-g'iat. The first two elements *Har-bwa correspond to Old Persian Haraiva 

(Babylonian Hariva), Avestan Haraeva, Pahlavi *Harew, Armenian Hrew, the 

modern Herat. The third element appears to contain a word with the meaning 

"city." The same character is used in j fit ^!] Kie-li-pie, *G'iat-li-b'iet, name of a 

pass in the north-eastern part of Persia; here *g'iat, *g'iar, seems to represent 

Sogdian yr, *?ara ("mountain"). Fan-tou ^Hf or j 5G (Ts'ien Han $u, Ch. 96 A), 

anciently *Pan-tav, *Par-tav, corresponds exactly to Old Persian Par0ava, Middle 

Persian Par0u. 




1 Hou Han $u, Ch. 116, p. 8 b. 




2 HIRTH, China and the Roman Orient, p. 143. 




8 Cf. also the observation of E. H. PARKER (Imp. and As. Quarterly Review, 

1903, p. 154), who noticed the phonetic difficulty in the proposed identification. 














1 88 SlNO-lRANICA 




most advanced and most competent representatives of the sinological 

field in all its varied and extensive branches, as well as in other domains 

of Oriental research. It would have been very tempting to summarize 

in a special chapter the Chinese method of transcribing Iranian and to 

discuss the phonology of Iranian in the light of Chinese contributions. 

Such an effort, however, appears to me premature at this moment: 

our knowledge of Sino-Iranian is in its infancy, and plenty of fresh 

evidence will come forward sooner or later from Turkistan manuscripts. 

There is no doubt that many hundreds of new Iranian terms of various 

dialects will be revived, and will considerably enrich our now scanty 

knowledge of the Iranian onomasticon and phonology. In view of the 

character of this publication, it was necessary to resort to a phonetic 

transcription of both ancient and modern Chinese on the same basis, 

as is now customary in all Oriental languages. The backwardness of 

Chinese research is illustrated by the fact that we slavishly adhere to 

a clumsy and antiquated system of romanization in which two and 

even three letters are wasted for the expression of a single sound. My 

system of transliteration will be easily grasped from the following com- 

parative table. 




OLD STYLE PHONETIC STYLE 




ng * 




ch I 




ch* & 




j f (while j serves to indicate the palatal 




sh 5 sonant, written also d). 




Other slight deviations from the old style, for instance, in the 

vowels, are self-explanatory. For the sake of the numerous compara- 

tive series including a large number of diverse Oriental languages it 

has been my aim to standardize the transcription as far as possible, 

with the exception of Sanskrit, for which the commonly adopted method 

remains. The letter x in Oriental words is never intended for the 

combination ks, but for the spirant surd, sometimes written kh. In 

proper names where we are generally accustomed to kh, I have allowed 

the latter to pass, perhaps also in other cases. I do not believe in super- 

consistency in purely technical matters. 




The linguistic phenomena, important as they may be, form merely 

a side-issue of this investigation. My main task is to trace the history 

of all objects of material culture, pre-eminently cultivated plants, 

drugs, products, minerals, metals, precious stones, and textiles, in their 

migration from Persia to China (Sino-Iranica), and others transmitted 

from China to Persia (Irano-Sinica). There are other groups of Sino- 

Iranica not included in this publication, particularly the animal world, 










INTRODUCTION 189 




games, and musical instruments. 1 The manuscript dealing with the 

fauna of Iran is ready, but will appear in another article the object of 

which is to treat all foreign animals known to the Chinese according 

to geographical areas and from the viewpoint of zoogeography in 

ancient and modern times. My notes on the games (particularly polo) 

and musical instruments of Persia adopted by the Chinese, as well as 

a study of Sino-Iranian geographical and tribal names, must likewise 

be reserved for another occasion. I hope that the chapter on the titles 

of the Sasanian government will be welcome, as those preserved in the 

Chinese Annals have been identified here for the first time. New 

results are also offered in the notice of Persian textiles. 




As to Iranian plants of which the Chinese have preserved notices, 

we must distinguish the following groups: (i) cultivated plants actually 

disseminated from Iranian to Chinese soil, (2) cultivated and wild 

plants of Iran merely noticed and described by Chinese authors, (3) drugs 

and aromatics of vegetable origin imported from Iran to China. The 

material, as far as possible, is arranged from this point of view and in 

chronological order. The single items are numbered. Apart from the 

five appendices, a hundred and thirty-five subjects are treated. At 

the outset it should be clearly understood that it is by no means the 

intention of these studies to convey the impression that the Chinese 

owe a portion of their material culture to Persia. Stress is laid on the 

point that the Chinese furnish us with immensely useful material for 

elaborating a history of cultivated plants. The foundation of Chinese 

civilization with its immense resources is no more affected by these 

introductions than that of Europe, which received numerous plants 

from the Orient and more recently from America. The Chinese merit 

our admiration for their far-sighted economic policy in making so 

many useful foreign plants tributary to themselves and amalgamating 

them with their sound system of agriculture. The Chinese were think- 

ing, sensible, and broad-minded people, and never declined to accept 

gratefully whatever good things foreigners had to offer. In plant- 

economy they are the foremost masters of the world, and China presents 

a unique spectacle in that all useful plants of the universe are cultivated 

there. Naturally, these cultivations were adopted and absorbed by a 

gradual process : it took the Chinese many centuries to become familiar 

with the flora of their own country, and the long series of their herbals 

(Pen ts'ao) shows us well how their knowledge of species increased 

from the T'ang to the present time, each of these works stating the 




1 Iranian influences on China in the matter of warfare, armor, and tactics have 

been discussed in Chinese Clay Figures, Part I. 










190 










SlNO-lRANICA 





































number of additional species as compared with its predecessor. The 

introduction of foreign plants begins from the latter part of the second 

century B.C., and it was two plants of Iranian origin, the alfalfa and 

the grape-vine, which were the first exotic guests in the land of Han. 

These were followed by a long line of other Iranian and Central-Asiatic 

plants, and this great movement continued down to the fourteenth 

century in the Yuan period. The introduction of American species in 

the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries denotes the last phase in 

this economic development, which I hope to set forth in a special 

monograph. Aside from Iran, it was Indo-China, the Malayan region, 

and India which contributed a large quota to Chinese cultivations. 

It is essential to realize that the great Iranian plant-movement extends 

over a period of a millennium and a half; for a learned legend has been 

spread broadcast that most of these plants were acclimatized during 

the Han period, and even simultaneously by a single man, the well- 

known general, Can K'ien. It is one of my objects to destroy this 

myth. Can K'ien, as a matter of fact, brought to China solely two 

plants, alfalfa and the grape-vine. No other plant is attributed to him 

in the contemporaneous annals. Only late and untrustworthy (chiefly 

Taoist) authors credit him also with the introduction of other Iranian 

plants. As time advanced, he was made the centre of legendary fabrica- 

tion, and almost any plant hailing from Central Asia and of doubtful 

or obscure history was passed off under his name: thus he was ulti- 

mately canonized as the great plant-introducer. Such types will 

spring up everywhere under similar conditions. A detailed discussion 

of this point will be found under the heading of each plant which by 

dint of mere fantasy or misunderstanding has been connected with 

Can K'ien by Chinese or European writers. In the case of the spinach 

I have furnished proof that this vegetable cannot have been culti- 

vated in Persia before the sixth century A.D., so that Can K'ien could 

not have had any knowledge of it. All the alleged Can-K'ien plants 

were introduced into China from the third or fourth century A.D. down 

to the T'ang period inclusively (618-906). The erroneous reconstruction 

alluded to above was chiefly championed by Bretschneider and Hirth; 

and A. de Candolle, the father of the science of historical botany, who, 

as far as China is concerned, depended exclusively on Bretschneider, 

fell victim to the same error. 




F. v. RiCHTHOFEN, 1 reproducing the long list of Bretschneider's 

Can-K'ien plants, observes, "It cannot be assumed that Can K'ien 

himself brought along all these plants and seeds, for he had to travel 










1 China, Vol. I, p. 459. 










INTRODUCTION 191 




with caution, and for a year was kept prisoner by the Hiuii-nu." When 

he adds, however, "but the relations which he had started brought the 

cultivated plants to China in the course of the next years/' he goes on 

guessing or speculating. 




In his recent study of Can K'ien, HiRTH 1 admits that of cultivated 

plants only the vine and alfalfa are mentioned in the Si ki* He is 

unfortunate, however, in the attempt to safeguard his former position 

on this question when he continues to argue that "nevertheless, the one 

hero who must be looked upon as the pioneer of all that came from 

the West was Chang K'ien." This is at best a personal view, but an 

unhistorical and uncritical attitude. Nothing allows us to read more 

from our sources than they contain. The Ts'i min yao $u, to which 

Hirth takes refuge, can prove nothing whatever in favor of his 

theory that the pomegranate, sesame, garlic, 3 and coriander were 

introduced by Can K'ien. The work in question was written at least 

half a millennium after his death, most probably in the sixth century 

A.D., and does not fall back on traditions coeval with the Han and 

now lost, but merely resorts to popular traditions evolved long after 

the Han period. In no authentic document of the Han is any allusion 

made to any of these plants. Moreover, there is no dependence on 

the Ts*i min yao $u in the form in which we have this book at present. 

BRETSCHNEiDER 4 said wisely and advisedly, "The original work was in 

ninety-two sections. A part of it was lost a long time ago, and much 

additional matter by later authors is found in the edition now cur- 

rent, which is in ten chapters. . . . According to an author of the 

twelfth century, quoted in the Wen hien fun k*ao, the edition then 

extant was already provided with the interpolated notes; and accord- 

ing to Li Tao, also an author of the Sung, these notes had been added 

by Sun Kun of the Sung dynasty." 5 What such a work would be 

able to teach us on actual conditions of the Han era, I for my part 

am unable to see. 




1 Journal Am. Or. Soc., Vol. XXXVII, 1917, p. 92. The new translation of this 

chapter of the Si ki denotes a great advance, and is an admirable piece of work. It 

should be read by every one as an introduction to this volume. It is only on points 

of interpretation that in some cases I am compelled to dissent from Hirth 's opinions. 




* This seems to be the direct outcome of a conversation I had with the author 

during the Christmas week of 1916, when I pointed out this fact to him and remarked 

that the alleged attributions to Can K'ien of other plants are merely the outcome of 

later traditions. 




3 This is a double error (see below, p. 302). 

M3ot. Sin., pt. I, p. 77. 




^ * Cf. also PELLIOT (Bull, de VEcole fran$aise, Vol. IX, p. 434), who remarks, 

"Ce vieil et pre"cieux ouvrage nous est parvenu en assez mauvais 6tat." 










192 SlNO-lRANICA 




It has been my endeavor to correlate the Chinese data first of all 

with what we know from Iranian sources, and further with classical, 

Semitic, and Indian traditions. Unfortunately we have only fragments 

of Iranian literature. Chapter xxvn of the Bundahisn 1 contains a 

disquisition on plants, which is characteristic of the treatment of this 

subject in ancient Persia. As it is not only interesting from this point 

of view, but also contains a great deal of material to which reference 

will be made in the investigations to follow, an extract taken from 

E. W. WEST'S translation 2 may be welcome. 




"These are as many genera of plants as exist: trees and shrubs, 

fruit-trees, corn, flowers, aromatic herbs, salads, spices, grass, wild 

plants, medicinal plants, gum plants, and all producing oil, dyes, and 

clothing. I will mention them also a second time: all whose fruit is 

not welcome as food of men, and are perennial, as the cypress, the 

plane, the white poplar, the box, and others of this genus, they call 

trees and shrubs (ddr va diraxt). The produce of everything welcome 

as food of men, that is perennial, as the date, the myrtle, the lote-plum 

(kundr, a thorny tree, allied to the jujube, which bears a small plum- 

like fruit), the grape, the quince, the apple, the citron, the pomegranate, 

the peach, the fig, the walnut, the almond, and others in this genus, 

they call fruit (mlvak). Whatever requires labor with the spade, and 

is perennial, they call a shrub (diraxi). Whatever requires that they 

take its crop through labor, and its root withers away, such as wheat, 

barley, grain, various kinds of pulse, vetches, and others of this genus, 

they call corn (jurdak}. Every plant with fragrant leaves, which is 

cultivated by the hand-labor of men, and is perennial, they call an 

aromatic herb (siparam). Whatever sweet-scented blossom arises at 

various seasons through the hand-labor of men, or has a perennial root 

and blossoms in its season with new shoots and sweet-scented blossoms, 

as the rose, the narcissus, the jasmine, the dog-rose (nestarun), the 

tulip, the colocynth (kavastlk) , the pandanus (kedi), the camba, the 

ox-eye (heri), the crocus, the swallow- wort (zarda), the violet, the 

kdrda, and others of this genus, they call a flower (gul). Everything 

whose sweet-scented fruit, or sweet-scented blossom, arises in its sea- 

son, without the hand-labor of men, they call a wild plant (vahdr or 

nihdl). Whatever is welcome as food of cattle and beasts of burden 

they call grass (giyah). Whatever enters into cakes (pes-pdrakihd) 

they call spices (dvzdrihd). Whatever is welcome in eating of bread, 

as torn shoots of the coriander, water-cress (kakij), the leek, and 




1 Cf. E. W. WEST, Pahlavi Literature, p. 98 (in Grundriss iran. Phil., Vol. II). 




2 Pahlavi Texts, pt. I, p. 100 (Sacred Books of the East, Vol V). 










INTRODUCTION 193 




others of this genus, they call salad (terak or tarak, Persian tarah). 

Whatever is like spinning cotton, and others of this genus, they call 

clothing plants (jamah). Whatever lentil (macag) is greasy, as sesame, 

duSdan, hemp, vandak (perhaps for zeto, 'olive,' as Anquetil supposes, 

and Justi assumes), and others of this genus, they call an oil-seed 

(rokano) . Whatever one can dye clothing with, as saffron, sapan-wood, 

zafava, vaha, and others of this genus, they call a dye-plant (rag). 

Whatever root, or gum (tiif), or wood is scented, as frankincense 

(Pazand kendri for Pahlavi kundur), vardst (Persian barghast), kust, 

sandalwood, cardamom (Pazand kdkura, Persian qaqulah, ' cardamoms, 

or kdkul, kdkulj 'marjoram'), camphor, orange-scented mint, and 

others of this genus, they call a scent (bod). Whatever stickiness 

comes out from plants they call gummy (vadak). The timber 

which proceeds from the trees, when it is either dry or wet, they 

call wood (cibd). Every one of all these plants which is so, they call 

medicinal (ddruk). 




"The principal fruits are of thirty kinds, and there are ten species 

the inside and outside of which are fit to eat, as the fig, the apple, the 

quince, the citron, the grape, the mulberry, the pear, and others of this 

kind. There are ten the outside of which is fit to eat, but not the 

inside, as the date, the peach, the white apricot, and others of this kind; 

those the inside of which is fit to eat, but not the outside, are the walnut, 

the almond, the pomegranate, the coco-nut, 1 the filbert (funduk), the 

chestnut (Sahbalut), the pistachio nut, the vargdn, and whatever else 

of this description are very remarkable. 




"This, too, it says, that every single flower is appropriate to an 

angel (ameZospend), 2 as the white jasmine (saman) is for Vohuman, the 

myrtle and jasmine (yasmin) are Auharmazd's own, the mouse-ear 

(or sweet marjoram) is ASavahist's own, the basil-royal is Satvlro's 

own, the musk flower is Spendarmad's, the lily is Horvadad's, the 

camba is Amerodad's, Dln-pavan-Ataro has the orange-scented mint 

(vddrang-bod), Ataro has the marigold (ddargun), the water-lily is 

A van's, the white marv is Xursed's, the ranges (probably rand, 'laurel') 

is Mah's, the violet is Tir's, the meren is Gos's, the kdrda is Dln-pavan- 

Mitro's, all violets are Mitro's, the red chrysanthemum (xer) is Sros's, 

the dog-rose (nestran) is Rasnu's, the cockscomb is Fravardin's, the 

sisebar is Vahram's, the yellow chrysanthemum is Ram's, the orange- 




1 Pazand andrsar is a misreading of Pahlavi andrgil (Persian nargU}, from 

Sanskrit ndrikela. 




2 These are the thirty archangels and angels whose names are applied to the 

thirty days of the Parsi month, in the order in which they are mentioned here, except 

that Auharmazd is the first day, and Vohuman is the second. 










IQ4 SlNO-lRANICA 




scented mint is Vad's, the trigonella is Dln-pavan-Dln's, the hundred- 

petalled rose is Din's, all kinds of wild flowers (vahdr) are Ard's, Ac.tad 

has all the white Horn, the bread-baker's basil is Asman's, Zamyad has 

the crocus, Maraspend has the flower of ArdaSlr, Aniran has this 

Horn of the angel Horn, of three kinds." 




From this extract it becomes evident that the ancient Persians paid 

attention to their flora, and, being fond of systematizing, possessed a 

classification of their plants; but any of their botanical literature, if 

it ever existed, is lost. 




The most important of the Persian works on pharmacology is the 

Kitab-ulabniyat J an haqd'iq-uladviyat or "Book of the Foundations of 

the True Properties of the Remedies," written about A.D. 970 by the 

physician Aba Mansur Muvaffaq bin 'All alharavi, who during one 

of his journeys visited also India. He wrote for Mansar Ibn Nuh II 

of the house of the Samanides, who reigned from 961 to 976 or 977. 

This is not only the earliest Persian work on the subject, but the 

oldest extant production in prose of New-Persian literature. The 

text has been edited by R. SELIGMANN from a unique manuscript 

of Vienna dated A.D. 1055, the oldest extant Persian manuscript. 1 

There is a translation by a Persian physician, ABDUL-CHALIG 

ACHUNDOW from Baku. 2 The translation in general seems good, and 

is provided with an elaborate commentary, but in view of the im- 

portance of the work a new critical edition would be desirable. 

The sources from which Aba Mansar derived his materials should 

be carefully sifted: we should like to know in detail what he 

owes to the Arabs, the Syrians, and the Indians, and what is due 

to his own observations. Altogether Arabic influence is pre-eminent. 

Cf. Appendix III. 




A good many Chinese plant-names introduced from Iran have the 

word Hu S3 prefixed to them. Hu is one of those general Chinese desig- 

nations without specific ethnic value for certain groups of foreign 

tribes. Under the Han it appears mainly to refer to Turkish tribes; 

thus the Hiun-nu are termed Hu in the Si ki. From the fourth century 

onward it relates to Central Asia and more particularly to peoples of 




1 Codex Vindobonensis sive Medici Abu Mansur Muwaffak Bin All Heratensis 

liber Fundamentorum Pharamacologiae Pars I Prolegomena et textura continens 

(Vienna, 1859). 




1 Die pharmakologischen Grundsatze des A. M. Muwaffak, in R. Robert's 




Historische Studien aus dem Pharmakologischen Institute der Universitat Dorpat, 




1873. Quoted as "Achundow, Abu Mansur." The author's name is properly 




Abdu'l-Khaliq, son of the Akhund or schoolmaster. Cf. E. G. BROWNE, Literary 




History of Persia, pp. n t 478. 










INTRODUCTION 195 




Iranian extraction. 1 BRETSCHNEiDER 2 annotated, "If the character 

hu occurs in the name of a plant, it can be assumed that the plant is 

of foreign origin and especially from western Asia, for by Hu Sen the 

ancient Chinese denoted the peoples of western Asia." This is but 

partially correct. The attribute hu is by no means a safe criterion in 

stamping a plant as foreign, neither does hu in the names of plants 

which really are of foreign origin apply to West-Asiatic or Iranian 

plants exclusively. 




1. The word hu appears in a number of names of indigenous and 

partially wild plants without any apparent connection with the tribal 

designation Hu or without allusion to their provenience from the Hu. 

In the Li Sao, the famous elegies by K'u Yuan of the fourth century 

B.C., a plant is mentioned under the name hu Sen SB Iffl, said to be a 

fragrant grass from which long cords were made. This plant is not 

identified. 3 




2. The acid variety of yu tt (Citrus grandis) is styled hu kan 

$J ~H*, 4 apparently an ironical nickname, which may mean "sweet like 

the Hu." The tree itself is a native of China. 




3. The term hu hien 68 IE occurs only in the T'u kin pen ts*ao of 

Su Sun of the eleventh century as a variety of hien (Amarantus) , which 

is indigenous to China. It is not stated that this variety came from 

abroad, nor is it known what it really was. 




4. Hu mien man S5 M I? is a variety of Rehmannia? a native 

of China and Japan. The name possibly means "the man with the face 

of a Hu." 6 C'en Ts'aii-k'i of the T'ang says in regard to this plant that 

it grows in Lin-nan (Kwaii-tuii), and is like ti hwan Jft jH (Rehmannia 

glutinosa). 




5. The plant known as ku-sui-pu H* ffi H (Poly podium fortunei) 

is indigenous to China, and, according to C*en Ts'an-k'i, was called 




1 "Le terme est bien en principe, vers Tan 800, une designation des Iraniens et 

en particulier des Sogdiens" (CHAVANNES and PELLIOT, Traits maniche"en, p. 231). 

This in general is certainly true, but we have well authenticated instances, traceable 

to the fourth century at least, of specifically Iranian plants the names of which are 

combined with the element Hu, that can but apply to Iranians. 




2 Chinese Recorder, 1871, p. 221. 




8 BRETSCHNEIDER, Bot. Sin., pt. II, No. 420; and Li sao ts'ao mu su (Ch. 2, 

p. 1 6 b, ed. of Ci pu tsu lai ts*un $u) by Wu Zen-kie ^ 81 of tne Sung period. 

See also T'ai p'ift yu Ian, Ch. 994, p. 6 b. 




4 BRETSCHNEIDER, op. cit., No. 236; W. T. SWINGLE in Plantas Wilsonianae, 

Vol. ii, p. 130. 




* STUART, Chinese Materia Medica, p. 372. 




* Cf. analogous plant-names like our Jews-mallow, Jews-thorn, Jews-ear, Jews- 

apple. 










|g6 SlNO-lRANICA 




by the people of Kian-si ffl R 3 hu-sun-kian t a purely local name 

which does not hint at any relation to the Hu. 




6. Another botanical name in which the word hu appears without 

reference to the Hu is ?ui-hu-ken SI S8 t8, unidentified, a wild plant 

diffused all over China, and first mentioned by 6'en Ts'an-k'i as grow- 

ing in the river-valleys of Kian-nan. 1 




7-8. The same remark holds good for ts'e-hu j! (Sc) ffl* (Bupleurum 

falcatum), a wild plant of all northern provinces and already described 

in the Pie lu, and for ts'ien-hu IJiJ fifl 8 (Angelica decursiva), growing in 

damp soil in central and northern China. 




9. Su-hu-lan lu #J ffli is an unidentified plant, first and solely men- 

tioned by C'en Ts'an-k'i, 4 the seeds of which, resembling those of 

Pimpinella anisum, are eatable and medicinally employed. It grows 

in Annam. One might be tempted to take the term as hu-lan of Su 

(Se-S'wan), but $u-hu-lan may be the transcription of a foreign word. 




10. The ma-k'in J f or niu ^r k'in (Viola pinnata), a wild violet, 

is termed hu k'in 48 ff in the Tun U 3 ]S by Ceh Tsiao SB ti (i 108-62) 

and in the T'u kin pen ts'ao of Su Sun. 1 No explanation as to the mean- 

ing of this hu is on record. 




11. The hu-man (wan) SB S is a poisonous plant, identified with 

Gelsemium elegans* It is mentioned in the Pei hu lu 1 with the synonyme 

ye-ko ?S S, 8 the vegetable yun ^ (Ipomoea aquatica) being regarded as 

an antidote for poisoning by hu-man. C'en Ts'an-k'i is cited as au- 

thority for this statement. The Lin piao lu i 9 writes the name RP S, 

and defines it as a poisonous grass; hu-man grass is the common col- 

loquial name. The same work further says, ''When one has eaten of 

this plant by mistake, one should use a broth made from sheep's blood 

which will neutralize the poison. According to some, this plant grows 

as a creeper. Its leaves are like those of the Ian hian 88 , bright and 

thick. Its poison largely penetrates into the leaves, and is not employed 




1 Pen ts'ao Jkort mu, Ch. 16, p. 7 b. 




Op. cit. t Ch. 13, p. 6 b. 




Op. cit., Ch. 13, p. 7 b. 

4 Op. cit., Ch. 26, p. 22 b. 




1 Op. cit., Ch. 26, p. 21 ; Ci wu mi* ii Cu k'ao, Ch. 14, p. 76. 




Cf. C. FORD, China Review, Vol. XV, 1887, pp. 215-220. STUART (Chinese 

Materia Medica, p. 220) says that the plant is unidentified, nevertheless he describes 

it on p. 185. 




1 Ch. 2, p. 1 8 b (ed. of Lu Sin-ytian). 




1 According to MATSUMURA (Shokubutsu mei-i, No. 2689). Rkus toxitodtndron 

(Japanese tsuta-uruSi). 




Ch. B, p. a (ed. of W* yi* *M). 










INTRODUCTION 197 




as a drug. Even if an antidote is taken, this poison will cause death 

within a half day. The goats feeding on the sprouts of this plant will 

fatten and grow." Fan C'en-ta j? J$ ;*C (1126-93), in his Kwei hai 

yii hen &', 1 mentions this plant under the name hu-man t'en Jfe ("hu-man 

creeper"), saying that it is a poisonous herb, which, rubbed and soaked 

in water, will result in instantaneous death as soon as this liquid enters 

the mouth. The plant is indigenous to southern China, and no reason 

is given for the word hu being prefixed to it. 




12. Hu fui-tse $) M ? (literally, "chin of the Hu") is the name 

of an evergreen tree or shrub indigenous throughout China, even to 

Annam. The name is not explained, and there are no data in Chinese 

records to indicate that it was introduced from abroad. 2 It is men- 

tioned by C'en Ts'an-k'i as a tree growing in P'iii-lin *? #, and it is 

said to be alluded to in the chapter Wu hin ci 3t f i of the Sun $u. 

The synonyme k'io'r-su i^ & B? (" sparrow-curd," because the birds 

are fond of the fruit) first appears in the Pao ci lun of Lei Hiao of the 

fifth century. The people of Yue call the plant p*u-t*ui-tse Hf $1 ? ; 

the southerners, lu-tu-tse ft 9$ ?, which according to Liu Tsi ^J U 

of the Ming, in his Fei sue lu IB S $!fc, is a word from the speech of 

the Man. The people of Wu term the tree pan-han-?un ^ & ^, 

because its fruit ripens at an early date. The people of Siafi Ji style 

it hwan-p'o-nai iSt 8MB! ("yellow woman's breast"), because the 

fruit resembles a nipple. 




13. In hu-lu $8 or 2B A (Lagenaria vulgaris) the first character is 

a substitute for 3& hu. The gourd is a native of China. 




14. Hui-hui tou 3 (literally, "Mohammedan bean") is a 

plant everywhere growing wild in the fields. 8 The same remark holds 

good for hu tou fi9 SL, a kind of bean which is roasted or made into 

flour, according to the Pen ts'ao U i, a weed growing in rice-fields. Wu 

K'i-ts'un, author of the Ci wu min $i t*u k*ao, says, "What is now hu tou, 

grows wild, and is not the hu tou of ancient times." 4 




15. Yen hu su J $1 ^ denotes tubers of Corydalis ambigua: they 

are little, hard, brown tubers, of somewhat flattened spherical form, 

averaging half an inch in diameter. The plant is a native of Siberia, 




1 Ed. of Ci pu tsu cai ts*un su, p. 30. 




a STUART (Chinese Materia Medica, p. 161) is mistaken in saying that several 

names of this plant are "possibly transliterations of Turkic or Mongol names." 

There are no such names on record. The tree is identified with Elceagnus longipes 

or pungens. 




3 Ci wu min U Vu k'ao, Ch. 2, p. n b. _It is first mentioned in the Kiu hwan 

pen ts'ao, being also called na-ho-tou ^ & .9. 




4 See, further, below, p. 305. 










198 SlNO-lRANICA 




Kamchatka, and the Amur region, and flowers upon the melting of the 

snow in early spring. 1 According to the Pen ts'ao kan mu, 2 the plant 

is first mentioned by C'en Ts'an-k'i of the T'ang period as growing in 

the country Hi H, and came from Nan-tun 3c M (in Korea). Li Si-Sen 

annotates that by Hi the north-eastern barbarians should be under- 

stood. Wan Hao-ku 3E #? "f, a physician of the thirteenth century, 

remarks that the name of the plant was originally huan j hu-su, but 

that on account of a taboo (to avoid the name of the Emperor Cen-tsun 

of the Sung) it was altered into yen-hu-su; but this explanation cannot 

be correct, as the latter designation is already ascribed to C'en Ts'an-k'i 

of the T'ang. It is not known whether hu in this case would allude to 

the provenience of the plant from Korea. In the following example, 

however, the allusion to Korea is clear. 




The mint, W $f po-ho, *bak-xa (Mentha arvensis or aquatica), occurs 

in China both spontaneously and in the cultivated state. The plant 

is regarded as indigenous by the Chinese, but also a foreign variety is 

known as hu pa-ho (*bwat-xa) ffl ^ jSj. 3 C'en Si-Kan Ht H, in his 

Si sin pen ts'ao Jttt#^, published in the tenth century, introduced 

the term wu ij| pa-ho, "mint of Wu" (that is, Su-ou, where the best 

mint was cultivated), in distinction from hu pa-ho, "mint of the Hu." 

Su Sun, in his T'u kin pen ts'ao, written at the end of the eleventh 

century, affirms that this foreign mint is similar to the native species, 

the only difference being that it is somewhat sweeter in taste; it grows 

on the border of Kiaii-su and Ce-kian, where the people make it 

into tea; commonly it is styled Sin-lo M It po-ho, "mint of Sinra" 

(in Korea). Thus this variety may have been introduced under the 

Sung from Korea, and it is to this country that the term hu may refer. 




Li 5i-en relates that Sun Se-miao dS JB 88, in his Ts'ien kin fail 

T & jfr,* writes the word ^ ?f fan-ho, but that this is erroneously due 

to a dialectic pronunciation. This means, in other words, that the first 

character fan is merely a variant of ^, 6 and, like the latter, had the 

phonetic equivalent *bwat, bat. 6 




1 HANBURY, Science Papers, p. 256. 




2 Ch. 13, p. 13. 




3 The word po-ho is Chinese, not foreign. The Persian word for "peppermint" 

is pudene, pudina, budenk (Kurd punk) ; in Hindi it is pudind or pudinekd, derived 

from the Persian. In Tibetan (Ladakh) it is p'o-lo-lin; in the Tibetan written lan- 

guage, byi-rug-pa, hence Mongol jirukba; in Manchu it is farsa. 




4 See below, p. 306. 




6 As Sun Se-miao lived in the seventh century, when the Korean mint was not 

yet introduced, his term fan-ho could, of course, not be construed to mean "foreign 

mint." 




e In T'oung Pao (1915, p. 18) PELLIOT has endeavored to show that the char- 










INTRODUCTION 199 




In the following example there is no positive evidence as to the 

significance of hu. Hu wan Si ce W 3i &> ^ (" envoy of the king of the 

Hu") is a synonyme of tu hwo M ? (Peucedanum decursivum) . l As 

the same plant is also styled k'ian ts'in amp;gt; W, k'ian hwo, and hu k'ian 

$i & H ^6 ffi 31 , the term K'ian (*Gian) alluding to Tibetan tribes, it 

may be inferred that the king of the Hu likewise hints at Tibetans. 

In general, however, the term Hu does not include Tibetans, and the 

present case is not conclusive in showing that it does. In the chapter 

on the walnut it will be seen that there are two introduced varieties, 

an Iranian (hu t'ao) and a Tibetan one (k'ian t'ao). 




In hu ts'ai (Brassica rapa) the element hu, according to Chinese 

tradition, relates to Mongolia, while it is very likely that the vegetable 

itself was merely introduced there from Iran. 2 




In other instances, plants have some relation to the Hu; but what 

this relation is, or what group of tribes should be understood by Hu, 

is not revealed. 




There is a plant, termed hu hwan lien S8 3t 31, the hwan-lien (Coptis 

teeta) of the Hu, because, as Li Si-Sen says, its physical characteristics, 

taste, virtue, and employment are similar to those of hwan-lien. It 

has been identified with Barkhausia re pens. As evidenced by the 




acter fan, on the authority of K'an-hi, could never have had the pronunciation po 

nor a final consonant, and that, accordingly, in the tribal name T'u-fan (Tibet) the 

character fan, as had previously been assumed, could not transcribe the Tibetan 

word bod. True it is that under the character in question K'an-hi has nothing to 

say about po, but ^ is merely a graphic variant of ^, with which it is phonetically 

identical. Now under this character, K'an-hi indicates plainly that, according to the 

Tsi yun and Cen yun, fan in geographical names is to be read p'o (anciently *bwa) 

| (fan-ts'ie Jjjf $fe), and that, according to the dictionary Si wen, the same char- 

acter was pronounced p'o (*bwa) ij&, p'u Jf , an d p'an^(cf. also SCHLEGEL, Secret of 

the Chinese Method, pp. 21-22). In the ancient transcription | or^ JE fan-ton, 

*par-tav, reproduction of Old Persian Par0ava (see above, p. 1 87) Jan corresponds very 

well to par or bar; and if it could interchange with the phonetic ^ pa, *bwat, bwar, it is 

perfectly clear that, contrary to Pelliot's theory, there were at least dialectic cases, 

where ^ was possessed of a final consonant, being sounded bwat or bwar. Con- 

sequently it could have very well served for the reproduction of Tibetan bod. From 

another phonetic viewpoint the above case is of interest: we have *bak-xa and 

*bwat-xa as ancient names for the mint, which goes to show that the final con- 

sonants of the first element were vacillating or varied in different dialects (cf . T'oung 

Pao, 1916, pp. 110-114). 




1 T'un ci (above, p. 196), Ch. 75, p. 12 b. 




2 See below, p. 381. In the term hu yen ("swallow of theHu"), hu appears to 

refer to Mongolia, as shown by the Manchu translation monggo cibin and the Turkl 

equivalent qalmaq qarlogac (Mongol xatun xariyatsai, Tibetan gyi-gyi k'ug-rta; cf. 

Ross, Polyglot List of Birds, No. 267). The bird occurs not only in Mongolia, but 

also in Ce-kian Province, China (see Kwei ki sanfu lu ^ H H SK ft, Ch. 2, p. 8; 

ed. of Si yin huan ts'un $u). 










200 SlNO-lRANICA 




attribute Hu, it may be of foreign origin, its foreign name being 91 $ 

IS 35 ko-hu-lu-tse (*kat-wu-lou-dzak). Unfortunately it is not indicated 

at what time this transcription was adopted, nor does Li Si- Sen state 

the source from which he derived it. The only T'ang author who 

mentions the plant, Su Kun, does not give this foreign name. At all 

events, it does not convey the impression of representing a T'ang 

transcription; on the contrary, it bears the ear-marks of a transcription 

made under the Yuan. Su Kun observes, "Hu hwan-lien is produced 

in the country Po-se and grows on dry land near the sea-shore. Its 

sprouts are like those of the hia-ku ts'ao 3t$f ^ (Brunella vulgaris). 

The root resembles a bird's bill; and the cross-section, the eyes of the 

mainah. The best is gathered in the first decade of the eighth month." 

Su Sun of the Sung period remarks that the plant now occurs in Nan-hai 

(Kwan-tun), as well as in Ts'in-lun H ffl (Sen-si and Kan-su). This 

seems to be all the information on record. 1 It is not known to me that 

Barkhausia grows in Persia; at least, Schlimmer, in his extensive dic- 

tionary of Persian plants, does not note it. 




Sou-ti Jfc US is mentioned by C'en Ts'aii-k'i as a plant (not yet 

identified) with seeds of sweet and warm flavor and not poisonous, and 

growing in Si-fan (Western Barbarians or Tibet) and in northern China 

3b i, resembling hwai hian fjj (Pimpinella anisum). The Hu make 

the seeds into a soup and eat them. 2 In this case the term Hu may be 

equated with Si-fan, but among the Chinese naturalists the latter term 

is somewhat loosely used, and does not necessarily designate Tibet. 3 




Hiun-k'iun *=T iff (Conioselinum univittatum) is an umbelliferous 

plant, which is a native of China. As early as the third century A.D. 

it is stated in the Wu Si pen ts*ao* that some varieties of this plant grow 

among the Hu; and Li Si- Sen annotates that the varieties from the Hu 

and Zun are excellent, and are hence styled hu k*iun SB ^. 5 It is stated 

that this genus is found in mountain districts in Central Europe, 

Siberia, and north-western America. 6 




1 What STUART (Chinese Materia Medica, p. 65) says regarding this plant is 

very inexact. He arbitrarily identifies the term Hu with the Kukunor, and wrongly 

ascribes Su Kun's statement to T'ao Hun-kin. Such an assertion as, "the drug is 

now said to be produced in Nan-hai, and also in Sen-si and Kan-su," is misleading, 

as this "now" comes from an author of the Sung period, and does not necessarily 

hold good for the present time. 




2 Pen ts'ao kan mu, Ch. 26, p. 22 b. 

8 Cf . below, p. 344. 




4 Cf . Beginnings of Porcelain, p. 115. 




6 He also imparts a Sanskrit name from the Suvarnaprabhasa-sutra in the form 

B) U TJMse-mo-k'ie, *ja-mak-gia. The genus is not contained in WATT'S Dictionary. 

6 Treasury of Botany, Vol. I, p. 322. 










INTRODUCTION 201 




In hu tsiao (" pepper ") the attribute hu distinctly refers to India. 1 

Another example in which hu alludes to India is presented by the 

term hu kan kian $) ^ S: ("dried ginger of the Hu"), which is a 

synonyme of T*ien-Zu 5 ^ kan kian ("dried ginger of India"), "pro- 

duced in the country of the Brahmans." 2 




In the term hufen ~ffl $^ (a cosmetic or facial powder of white lead), 

the element hu bears no relation to the Hu, although it is mentioned 

as a product of Kuca 8 and subsequently as one of the city of Ili (Yi-li- 

pa-li). 4 In fact, there is no Chinese tradition to the effect that this 

substance ever came from the Hu. 5 F. P. SMITH 8 observed with refer- 

ence to this subject, "The word hu does not denote that the substance 

was formerly obtained from some foreign source, but is the result of a 

mistaken character." This evidently refers to the definition of the 

dictionary Si min W %* by Liu Hi of the Han, who explains this hu 

by f$ hu ("gruel, congee"), which is mixed with grease to be rubbed 

into the face. The process of making this powder from lead is a thor- 

oughly Chinese affair. 




In the term hu yen W IB ("salt of the Hu") the word Hu refers to 

barbarous, chiefly Tibetan, tribes bordering on China in the west; for 

there are also the synonymes $un -$C yen and k'ian j& yen, the former 

already occurring in the Pie lu. Su Kun of the seventh century equalizes 

the terms Zun yen and hu yen, and gives Vu-ten 35 $t yen as the word 

used in Sa-cou & JH. Ta Min 'J< BJ, who wrote in A.D. 970, says that this 

is the salt consumed by the Tibetans (Si-fan), and hence receives the 

designation %un or k'ian yen. Other texts, however, seem to make a 

distinction between hu yen and %uh yen: thus it is said in the biography 

of Li Hiao-po $ ^ f & in the Wei Su, "The salt of the Hu cures pain 

of the eye, the salt of the Zun heals ulcers." 




The preceding examples are sufficient to illustrate the fact that 

the element hu in botanical terms demands caution, and that each case 

must be judged on its own merits. No hard and fast rule, as deduced 

by Bretschneider, can be laid down: the mere addition of hu proves 

neither that a plant is foreign, nor that it is West-Asiatic or Iranian. 

There are native plants equipped with this attribute, and there are 

foreign plants thus characterized, which hail from Korea, India, or 




1 See below, p. 374. 




2 en lei pen ts'ao, Ch. 6, p. 67 b. 




3 Cou Su, Ch. 50, p. 5; Sui Su, Ch. 83, p. 5 b. 




4 Ta Min i t'un ft, Ch. 89, p. 22; Kwan yu ki, Ch. 24, p. 6 b. 




1 Pen ts'ao kan mu, Ch. 8, p. 6; GEERTS (Produits, pp. 596-601), whose transla- 

tion "poudre des pays barbares" is out of place. 




6 Contributions towards the Materia Medica of China, p. 231. 










202 SlNO-lRANICA 




some vaguely defined region of Central Asia. The fact, however, re- 

mains that there are a number of introduced, cultivated Hu plants 

coming from Iranian lands, but in each and every case it has been my 

endeavor to furnish proof for the fact that these actually represent 

Iranian cultivations. With the sole exception of the walnut, the his- 

tory of which may tolerably well be traced, the records of these Hu 

plants are rather vague, and for none of them is there any specific 

account of the introduction. It is for botanical rather than historical 

reasons that the fact of the introduction becomes evident. It is this 

hazy character of the traditions which renders it impossible to connect 

these plants in any way with Can K'ien. Moreover, it cannot be 

proved with certainty that any names of plants or products formed 

with the element hu existed under the Han. The sole exception would 

be hu ts'ai, 1 but its occurrence in the T*un su wen of the Han is not 

certain either; and this hu, according to Chinese tradition, refers to 

Mongolia, not to Iran. Another merely seeming exception is presented 

by hu fun-lei* but this is a wild, not a cultivated tree; and hu, in this 

case, has a geographical rather than an ethnographical significance. In 

the wooden documents discovered in Turkistan we have one good, 

datable instance of a Hu product; and this is hu t'ie ("iron of the Hu" 

and implements made of such iron). These tablets belong to the Tsin 

period (A.D. 265-419),* while in no wooden document of the Han has 

any compound with Hu as yet been traced. Again, all available evi- 

dence goes to show that these Hu plants were not introduced earlier 

than the Tsin dynasty, or, generally speaking, during what is known 

as the Leu 'ao or six minor dynasties, covering the time from the 

downfall of the Han to the rise of the T'ang dynasty. It is noteworthy 

that of none of these plants is an Iranian name on record. 




The element hu, in a few cases, serves also the purpose of a tran- 

scription: thus probably in the name of the coriander, hu-swi* and 

quite evidently in the name of the fenugreek, hu-lu-pa.* 




Imported fruits and products have been named by many nations 

for the countries from which they hailed or from the people by whom 

they were first brought. The Greeks had their "Persian apple" GUTJXOP 

Hepacriv, "peach"), their "Medic apple" (nfrov M^Suov, "citron"), 

their "Medic grass" (Mij5in) ir6a, "alfalfa"), and their "Armenian 




1 Below, p. 381. 

9 Below, p. 339. 




1 CHAVANNES, Documents chinois ddcouverts par Aurel Stein, pp. 168, 169. 

4 Below, p. 298. 




1 Below, p. 446. It thus occurs also in geographical names, as in Hu-c"*a-la 

(Guzcrat); see HIRTH and ROCKHILL, Chao Ju-kua, p. 92. 










INTRODUCTION 203 










apple" (rj\ov 'ApueviaKov, "apricot"). RABELAIS (I483-I553) 1 

already made the following just observation on this point, "Les autres 

[plantes] ont retenu le nom des regions des quelles furent ailleurs 

transporters, comme pommes medices, ce sont pommes de Medie, en 

laquelle furent premierement trouve*es; pommes puniques, ce sont 

grenades, apportes de Punicie, c'est Carthage. Ligusticum, c'est 

livesche, apportee de Ligurie, c'est la couste de Genes: rhabarbe, du 

fleuve Barbare nomine" Rha, comme atteste Ammianus: santonique, 

fenu grec; castanes, persiques, sabine; .stoechas, de mes isles Hieres, 

antiquement dites Stoechades; spica celtica et autres." The Tibetans, 

as I have shown, 2 form many names of plants and products with Bal 

(Nepal), Mon (Himalayan Region), rGya (China), and Li (Khotan). 




In the same manner we have numerous botanical terms preceded 

by "American, Indian, Turkish, Turkey, Guinea," etc. 




Aside from the general term Hu, the Chinese characterize Iranian 

plants also by the attribute Po-se (Parsa, Persia): thus Po-se tsao 

("Persian jujube") serves for the designation of the date. The term 

Po-se requires great caution, as it denotes two different countries, Persia 

and a certain Malayan region. This duplicity of the name caused 

grave confusion among both Chinese and European scholars, so that 

I was compelled to devote to this problem a special chapter in which 

all available sources relative to the Malayan Po-se and its products 

are discussed. Another tribal name that quite frequently occurs in 

connection with Iranian plant-names is Si-2un 1$ 3$, ("the Western 

2uii"). These tribes appear as early as the epoch of the Si kin and 

Su kin, and seem to be people of Hiun-nu descent. In post-Christian 

times Si-2un developed into a generic term without ethnic significance, 

and vaguely hints at Central-Asiatic regions. Combined with botanical 

names, it appears to be synonymous with Hu. 3 It is a matter of course 

that all these geographical and tribal allusions in plant-names have 

merely a relative, not an absolute value; that is, if the Chinese, for 

instance, designate a plant as Persian (Po-se) or Hu, this signifies that 

from their viewpoint the plant under notice hailed from Iran, or in 

some way was associated with the activity of Iranian nations, but it 

does not mean that the plant itself or its cultivation is peculiar or due 

to Iranians. This may be the case or not, yet this point remains to be 

determined by a special investigation in each particular instance. 

While the Chinese, as will be seen, are better informed on the history 




1 Le Gargantua et le Pantagruel, Livre III, chap. L. 




2 T'oung Pao, 1916, pp. 409, 448, 456. 




3 For examples of its occurrence consult Index. 










204 SlNO-lRANICA 




of important plants than any other people of Asia (and I should even 

venture to add, of Europe), the exact and critical history of a plant- 

cultivation can be written only by heeding all data and consulting all 

sources that can be gathered from every quarter. The evidence accruing 

from the Semites, from Egypt, Greece, and Rome, from the Arabs, 

India, Camboja, Annam, Malayans, Japan, etc., must be equally 

requisitioned. Only by such co-ordination may an authentic result be 

hoped for. 




The reader desirous of information on the scientific literature 

of the Chinese utilized in this publication may be referred to Bret- 

schneider's "Botanicon Sinicum" (part I). 1 It is regrettable that no 

Pen ts*ao (Herbal) of the T'ang period has as yet come to light, and 

that for these works we have to depend on the extracts given in later 

books. The loss of the Hu pen ts'ao ("Materia Medica of the Hu") 

and the &u hu kwo fan ("Prescriptions from the Hu Countries") is 

especially deplorable. I have directly consulted the Cen lei pen ts*ao, 

written by T'ah Sen-wei in 1108 (editions printed in 1521 and 1587), 

the Pen ts'ao yen i by K'ou Tsun-si of 1116 in the edition of Lu Sin- 

yuan, and the well-known and inexhaustible Pen ts'ao kan mu by Li 

Si-Sen, completed in 1578. With all its errors and inexact quotations, 

this remains a monumental work of great erudition and much solid 

information. Of Japanese Pen ts'ao (Honzo) I havt used the Yamato 

hon&o, written by Kaibara Ekken in 1709, and the Honzo komoku keimo 

by Ono Ranzan. Wherever possible, I have resorted to the original 

source-books. Of botanical works, the Kwan k'unfan p'u, the Hwa p*u, 

the d wu mih $i t'u k'ao, and several Japanese works, have been utilized. 

The Yu yah tsa tsu has yielded a good many contributions to the plants 

of Po-se and Fu-lin; several Fu-lin botanical names hitherto unexplained 

I have been able to identify with their Aramaic equivalents. Although 

these do not fall within the subject of Sino-Iranica, but Sino-Semitica, 

it is justifiable to treat them in this connection, as the Fu-lin names 

are given side by side with the Po-se names. Needless to say, I have 

carefully read all accounts of Persia and the Iranian nations of Central 

Asia contained in the Chinese Annals, and the material to be found 

there constitutes the basis and backbone of this investigation. 2 




There is a class of literature which has not yet been enlisted for the 




1 We are in need, however, of a far more complete and critical history of the 

scientific literature of the Chinese. 




2 The non-sinological reader may consult to advantage E. H. PARKER, Chinese 

Knowledge of Early Persia (Imp. and Asiatic Quarterly Review, Vol. XV, 1903, 

pp. 144-169) for the general contents of the documents relating to Persia. Most 

names of plants and other products have been omitted in Parker's article. 










INTRODUCTION 205 




study of cultivated plants, and this is the early literature on medicine. 

Prominent are the books of the physician Can Cun-kin i it S or 

Can Ki K 18, who is supposed to have lived under the Later Han at 

the end of the second century A.D. A goodly number of cultivated plants 

is mentioned in his book Kin kwei yil han yao Ho fail lun & S 3i 3& 

3c ~}3 Ift or abbreviated Kin kwei yao lio. 1 This is a very interesting 

hand-book of dietetics giving detailed rules as to the avoidance of 

certain foods at certain times or in certain combinations, poisonous 

effects of articles of diet, and prescriptions to counteract this poison. 

Neither this nor any other medical writer gives descriptions of plants 

or notes regarding their introduction; they are simply enumerated in 

the text of the prescriptions. But it is readily seen that, if such a work 

can be exactly dated, it has a chronological value in determining whether 

a given plant was known at that period. Thus Can Ki mentions, of 

plants that interest us in this investigation, the walnut, the pome- 

granate, the coriander, and Allium scorodoprasum (hu swan). Unfortu- 

nately, however, we do not know that we possess his work in its 

original shape, and Chinese scholars admit that it has suffered from inter- 

polations which it is no longer possible to unravel. The data of such 

a work must be utilized with care whenever points of chronology are 

emphasized. It was rather tempting to add to the original prescrip- 

tions of Can Ki, and there is no doubt that the subsequent editions 

have blended primeval text with later comments. The earliest com- 

mentary is by Wan Su-ho : $t %R of the Tsin. Now, if we note that 

the plants in question are otherwise not mentioned under the Han, but 

in other books are recorded only several centuries later, we can hardly 

refrain from entertaining serious doubts as to Can Ki's acquaintance 

with them. A critical bibliographical study of early Chinese medical 

literature is an earnest desideratum. 




A. DE CANDOLLE'S monumental work on the "Origin of Cultivated 

Plants " is still the only comprehensive book on this subject that we 

have. It was a masterpiece for his time, and still merits being made 

the basis and starting-point for any investigation of this kind. De Can- 

dolle possessed a really critical and historical spirit, which cannot be 

said of other botanists who tried to follow him on the path of his- 

torical research; and the history of many cultivated plants has been 

outlined by him perfectly well and exactly. Of many others, our con- 

ceptions are now somewhat different. Above all, it must be said that 




1 Reprinted in the Yii tswan $ tsun kin kien of 1739 (WYLIE, Notes on Chinese 

Literature, p. 101). A good edition of this and the other works of the same author on 

the basis of a Sung edition is contained in the medical Ts'un-Su, the / t'uti en mo 

ts'uan Su, published by the Ce-kian Su ku. 










206 SlNO-lRANICA 




since his days Oriental studies have made such rapid strides, that his 

notes with regard to India, China, and Japan, are thoroughly out of 

date. As to China, he possessed no other information than the super- 

ficial remarks of BRETSCHNEIDER in his "Study and Value of Chinese 

Botanical Works," 1 which teem with misunderstandings and errors. 2 

De Candolle's conclusions as to things Chinese are no longer acceptable. 

The same holds good for India and probably also for Egypt and western 

Asia. In point of method, de Candolle has set a dangerous precedent 

to botanists in whose writings this effect is still visible, and this is 

his over- valuation of purely linguistic data. The existence of a native 

name for a plant is apt to prove little or nothing for the history of 

the plant, which must be based on documentary and botanical evi- 

dence. Names, as is well known, in many cases are misleading or 

deceptive; they constitute a welcome accessory in the chain of evidence, 

but they cannot be relied upon exclusively. It is a different case, of 

course, if the Chinese offer us plant-names which can be proved to be 

of Iranian origin. If on several occasions I feel obliged to uphold 

V. Hehn against his botanical critic A. Engler, such pleas must not 

be construed to mean that I am an unconditional admirer of Hehn; 

on the contrary, I am wide awake to his weak points and the short- 

comings of his method, but wherever in my estimation he is right, it 

is my duty to say that he is right. A book to which I owe much in- 

formation is CHARLES JORET'S "Les Plantes dans 1'antiquite* et au 

moyen age" (2 vols., Paris, 1897, 1904), which contains a sober and 

clear account of the plants of ancient Iran. 8 




A work to which I am greatly indebted is " Terminologie me'dico- 

pharmaceutique et anthropologique frangaise-persane, " by J. L. 

SCHLIMMER, lithographed at Teheran, 1874.* This comprehensive work 

of over 600 pages folio embodies the lifelong labors of an instructor at 

the Polytechnic College of Persia, and treats in alphabetical order of 

animal and vegetable products, drugs, minerals, mineral waters, native 




1 Published in the Chinese Recorder for 1870 and 1871. 




1 They represent the fruit of a first hasty and superficial reading of the Pen 

ts'ao kan mu without the application of any criticism. In Chinese literature we can 

reach a conclusion only by consulting and sifting all documents bearing on a problem. 

Bretschneider's Botanicon Sinicum, much quoted by sinologues and looked upon as 

a sort of gospel by those who are unable to control his data, has now a merely relative 

value, and is uncritical and unsatisfactory both from a botanical and a sinological 

viewpoint; it is simply a translation of the botanical section of the Pen ts'ao kan mu 

without criticism and with many errors, the most interesting plants being omitted. 




1 Joret died in Paris on December 26, 1914, at the age of eighty-five years 

(cf. obituary notice by H. CORDIER, La Geographic, 1914, p. 239). 




4 Quoted " SCHLIMMER, Terminologie." I wish to express my obligation to the 

Surgeon General's Library in Washington for the loan of this now very rare book. 










INTRODUCTION 207 




therapeutics and diseases, with a wealth of solid information that has 

hardly ever been utilized by our science. 




It is hoped that these researches will chiefly appeal to botanists 

and to students of human civilization; but, as it can hardly be expected 

that the individual botanist will be equally interested in the history 

of every plant here presented, each subject is treated as a unit and 

as an independent essay, so that any one, according to his inclination 

and choice, may approach any chapter he desires. Repetitions have 

therefore not been shunned, and cross-references are liberally inter- 

spersed; it should be borne in mind, however, that my object is not 

to outline merely the history of this or that plant, but what I wish to 

present is a synthetic and comprehensive picture of a great and unique 

plant-migration in the sense of a cultural movement, and simultane- 

ously an attempt to determine the Iranian stratum in the structure of 

Chinese civilization. It is not easy to combine botanical, oriental, 

philological, and historical knowledge, but no pains have been spared 

to render justice to both the botanical and the historical side of each 

problem. All data have been sifted critically, whether they come 

from Chinese, Japanese, Indian, Persian, Arabic, or classical sources, 

and in no instance have I depended on a second-hand or dogmatic 

statement. The various criticisms of A. de Candolle, A. Engler, E. 

Bretschneider, and other eminent authorities, arise from the critical 

attitude toward the subject, and merely aim at the furtherance of the 

cause. 




I wish to express my thanks to Dr. Tanaka TyOzaburO in the 

Bureau of Plant Industry of the Department of Agriculture, Washing- 

ton, for having kindly prepared a translation of the notices on the 

grape-vine and the walnut from Japanese sources, which are appended 

to the chapters on the history of these plants. The manuscript of this 

publication was completed in April, 1918. 




The generosity of Mrs. T. B. Blackstone and Mr. Charles R. 

Crane in contributing a fund toward the printing of this volume is 

gratefully acknowledged. 










ALFALFA 




1. The earliest extant literary allusion to alfalfa 1 (Medicago saliva) 

is made in 424 B.C. in the Equites ("The Knights") of Aristophanes, 

who says (V, 606) : 










"H0-0iop 5 rods irayovpovs kvrl irolas 




"The horses ate the crabs of Corinth as a substitute for the Medic.*] 




The term "Medike " is derived from the name of the country Media. 

In his description of Media, Strabo* states that the plant constituting 

the chief food of the horses is called by the Greeks "Medike" from its 

growing in Media in great abundance. He also mentions as a product 

of Media silphion, from which is obtained the Medic juice. 3 Pliny* 

Intimates that "Medica" is by nature foreign to Greece, and that it 

was first introduced there from Media in consequence of the Persian 

wars under King Darius. Dioscorides 8 describes the plant without 

referring to a locality, and adds that it is used as forage by the cattle- 

breeders. In Italy, the plant was disseminated from the middle of the 

second century B.C. to the middle of the first century A.D., 8 almost 

coeval with its propagation to China. The Assyriologists claim that 

aspasti or aspastu, the Iranian designation of alfalfa, is mentioned in 

a Babylonian text of ca. 700 B.C.; 7 and it would not be impossible that 

its favorite fodder followed the horse at the time of its introduction 

from Iran into Mesopotamia. A. DE CANDOLLE* states that Medicago 




1 1 use this term (not lucerne) in accordance with the practice of the U. S. 

Department of Agriculture; it is also the term generally used and understood by the 

people of the United States. The word is of Arabic origin, and was adopted by the 

Spaniards, who introduced it with the plant into Mexico and South America in the 

sixteenth century. In 1854 it was taken to San Francisco from Chile (J. M. WEST- 

GATE, Alfalfa, p. 5, Washington, 1908). 




XI. xiii, 7. 




1 Theophrastus (Hist, plant., VIII. vn, 7) mentions alfalfa but casually by 

saying that it is destroyed by the dung and urine of sheep. Regarding silphion 

see p. 355- 




4 xm, 43. 




n, 176. 




e HEHN, Kulturpflanzen, 8th ed., p. 412. 




T SCHRADER in Hehn, p. 416; C. JORET (Plantes dans 1'antiquite 1 , Vol. II, p. 68) 

states after J. Hale"vy that aspasti figures in the list drawn up by the gardener of the 

Babylonian king Mardukbalidin (Merodach-Baladan), a contemporary of Ezechias 

King of Juda. 




8 Origin of Cultivated Plants, p, 103. 




208 










ALFALFA 209 




saliva has been found wild, with every appearance of an indigenous 

plant, in several provinces of Anatolia, to the south of the Caucasus, 

in several parts of Persia, in Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and in Kashmir. 1 

Hence the Greeks, he concludes, may have introduced the plant from 

Asia Minor as well as from India, which extended from the north of 

Persia. This theory seems to me inadmissible and superfluous, for 

the Greeks allude solely to Media in this connection, not to India. 

Moreover, the cultivation of the plant is not ancient in India, but is 

of recent date, and hardly plays any r61e in Indian agriculture and 

economy. 




In ancient Iran, alfalfa was a highly important crop closely associated 

with the breeding of superior races of horses. Pahlavi as past or aspist 

New Persian aspust, uspust, aspist, ispist, or isfist (Pustu or Afghan spastu, 

SpeSta), is traceable to an Avestan or Old-Iranian *aspo-asti (from the 

root ad, "to eat"), and literally means " horse-fodder." 2 This word has 

penetrated into Syriac in the form aspesta or pespesta (the latter in the 

Geoponica). Khosrau I (A.D. 531-578) of the Sasanian dynasty included 

alfalfa in his new organization of the land-tax: 3 the tax laid on alfalfa 

was seven times as high as that on wheat and barley, which gives an 

idea of the high valuation of that forage-plant. It was also employed 

in the pharmacopoeia, being dealt with by Abu Mansur in his book 

on pharmacology. 4 The seeds are still used medicinally. 6 The Arabs 

derived from the Persians the word isfist, Arabicized into fisfisa; Arabic 

designations being ratba and qatt, the former for the plant in its natural 

state, the latter for the dried plant. 6 




The mere fact that the Greeks received Medicago from the Persians, 

and christened it " Medic grass," by no means signifies or proves at the 

outset that Medicago represents a genuinely Iranian cultivation. It is 

well known how fallacious such names are: the Greeks also had the 

peach under the name "Persian apple," and the apricot as "Armenian 

apple;" yet peach and apricot are not originally Persian or Armenian, 

but Chinese cultivations: Iranians and Armenians in this case merely 




1 As to Kashmir, it will be seen, we receive a confirmation from an ancient 

Chinese document. See also G. WATT, Dictionary of the Economic Products of 

India, Vol. V, pp. 199-203. 




2 NELDEKE, ZDMG, Vol. XXXII, 1878, p. 408. Regarding some analogous 

plant-names, see R. v. STACKELBERG, ibid., Vol. LIV, 1900, pp. 108, 109. 




3 NOLDEKE, Tabari, p. 244. 




4 ACHUNDOW, Abu Mansur, p. 73 (cf. above, p. 194). 




6 SCHLIMMER, Terminologie, p. 365. He gives yondze as the Persian name, which, 

however, is of Turkish origin (from yont, "horse"). In Asia Minor there is a place 

Yonjali ("rich in alfalfa"). 




6 LECLERC, Traite" des simples, Vol. Ill, p. 35. 










210 SlNO-lRANICA 




acted as mediators between the far east and the Mediterranean. How- 

ever, the case of alfalfa presents a different problem. The Chinese, who 

cultivate alfalfa to a great extent, do not claim it as an element of 

their agriculture, but have a circumstantial tradition as to when and 

how it was received by them from Iranian quarters in the second 

century B.C. As any antiquity for this plant is lacking in India or any 

other Asiatic country, the verdict as to the centre of its primeval culti- 

vation is decidedly in favor of Iran. The contribution which the Chinese 

have to make to the history of Medicago is of fundamental importance 

and sheds new light on the whole subject: in fact, the history of no 

cultivated plant is so well authenticated and so solidly founded. 




In the inscription of Persepolis, King Darius says, "This land Persia 

which Auramazda has bestowed on me, being beautiful, populous, and 

abundant in horses according to the will of Auramazda and my own, 

King Darius it does not tremble before any enemy." I have alluded 

in the introduction to the results of General Can K'ien's memorable 

expedition to Central Asia. The desire to possess the fine Iranian 

thoroughbreds, more massively built than the small Mongolian horse, 

and distinguished by their noble proportions and slenderness of feet 

as well as by the development of chest, neck, and croup, was one of 

the strongest motives for the Emperor Wu (140-87 B.C.) to maintain 

regular missions to Iranian countries, which led to a regular caravan 

trade with Fergana and Parthia. Even more than ten such missions 

were dispatched in the course of a year, the minimum being five or six. 

At first, this superior breed of horse was obtained from the Wu-sun, 

but then it was found by Can K'ien that the breed of Fergana was far 

superior. These horses were called t 'blood-sweating" (han-kile ff jfil), 1 

and were believed to be the offspring of a heavenly horse (t'ien ma 

^ Kl). The favorite fodder of this noble breed consisted in Medicago 

sativa; and it was a sound conclusion of General Can K'ien, who was a 

practical man and possessed of good judgment in economic matters, 

that, if these much-coveted horses were to continue to thrive on Chinese 

soil, their staple food had to go along with them. Thus he obtained 

the seeds of alfalfa in Fergana, 2 and presented them in 126 B.C. to his 

imperial master, who had wide tracts of land near his palaces covered 




1 This name doubtless represents the echo of some Iranian mythical concept, 

but I have not yet succeeded in tracing it in Iranian mythology. 




2 In Fergana as well as in the remainder of Russian Turkistan Medicago saliva 

is still propagated on an immense scale, and represents the only forage-plant of that 

country, without which any economy would be impossible, for pasture-land and hay 

are lacking. Alfalfa yields four or five harvests there a year, and is used for the feed- 

ing of cattle either in the fresh or dry state. In the mountains it is cultivated up to 

an elevation of five thousand feet; wild or as an escape from cultivation it reaches 










ALFALFA 211 




with this novel plant, and enjoyed the possession of large numbers of 

celestial horses. 1 From the palaces this fodder-plant soon spread to 

the people, and was rapidly diffused throughout northern China. 

According to Yen Si-ku (A.D. 579-645), this was already an accom- 

plished fact during the Han period. As an officinal plant, alfalfa appears 

in the early work Pie lu.* The Ts*i min yao $u of the sixth century 

A.D. gives rules for its cultivation; and T'ao Hun-kin (A.D. 451-536) 

remarks that "it is grown in gardens at C'an-nan (the ancient capital 

in Sen-si), and is much valued by the northerners, while the people 

of Kian-nan do not indulge in it much, as it is devoid of flavor. Abroad 

there is another mu-su plant for healing eye-diseases, but different 

from this species." 8 




Can K'ien was sent out by the Emperor Wu to search for the 

Yue-2i and to close an alliance with them against the Turkish Hiun-nu. 

The Yue-i, in my opinion, were an Indo-European people, speaking a 

North-Iranian language related to Scythian, Sogdian, YagnObi, and 

Ossetic. In the course of his mission, Can K'ien visited Fergana, Sog- 

diana, and Bactria, all strongholds of an Iranian population. The 

"West" for the first time revealed by him to his astounded country- 

men was Iranian civilization, and the products which he brought back 

were thoroughly and typically Iranian. The two cultivated plants 

(and only these two) introduced by him into his fatherland hailed 

from Fergana: Ferganian was an Iranian language; and the words for 

the alfalfa and grape, mu-su and p*u-t'ao, were noted by Can K'ien 

in Fergana and transmitted to China along with the new cultivations. 

These words were Ferganian; that is, Iranian. 4 Can K'ien himself was 




an altitude up to nine thousand feet. Cf. S. KORZINSKI, Vegetation of Turkistan 

(in Russian), p. 51. Russian Turkistan produces the largest supply of alfalfa-seed 

for export (E. BROWN, Bull. Dep. of Agriculture, No. 138, 1914). 




1 Si ki, Ch. 123. 




* Cf. Chinese Clay Figures, p. 135. 




8 Cen lei pen ts'ao, Ch. 27, p. 23. It is not known what this foreign species is. 




4 HIRTH'S theory (Journal Am. Or. Soc., Vol. XXXVII, 1917, p. 149), that the 

element yuan of Ta-yuan (Fergana) might represent a "fair linguistic equivalent" of 

Yavan (Yavana, the Indian name of the Greeks), had already been advanced by J. 

EDKINS (Journal China Branch Roy. As. Soc., Vol. XVIII, 1884, p. 5). To me it 

seems eccentric, and I regret being unable to accept it. In the T'ang period we have 

from Huan Tsan a reproduction of the name Yavana in the form JUJ Jfl ^JS 

Yen-mo-na, *Yam-mwa-na (PELLIOT, Bull, de VEcole frangaise, Vol. IV, p. 278). 

For the Han period we should expect, after the analogy of Jj| f$ Ye-tiao, *Yap 

(Dzap)-div (Yavadvlpa, Java), a transcription J Jf Ye-na, *Yap-na, for Yavana, 

The term $ @ Yu-yue, * Yu-vat (var) , does not represent a transcription of Yavana, 

as supposed by CHAVANNES (M&noires historiques de Se-ma Ts'ien, Vol. IV, 1901, 

PP- 558-559), but is intended to transcribe the name Yuan (*Yuvar, Yjjar), 

still employed by the Cam and other peoples of Indo-China as a designation of 










212 SlNO-lRANICA 




very well aware of the fact that the speech of the people of Fergana was 

Iranian, for he stated in his report, that, although there were different 

dialects in the tract of land stretching from Fergana westward as far 

as Parthia (An-si), yet their resemblance was so great that the people 

could make themselves intelligible to each other. 1 This is a plain 

allusion to the differentiation and at the same time the unity of Iranian 

speech; 2 and if the Ferganians were able to understand the Parthians, 

I do not see in what other language than Iranian they could have 

conversed. Certainly they did not speak Greek or Turkish, as some 

prejudiced theorists are inclined to imagine. 




The word brought back by Can K'ien for the designation of alfalfa, 

and still used everywhere in China for this plant, was mu-su @ ^, 

consisting of two plain phonetic elements, 8 anciently *muk-suk (Japa- 

nese moku-Suku), subsequently written H* ^ with the addition of the 

classifier No. 140. I recently had occasion to indicate an ancient Tibetan 

transcription of the Chinese word in the form bug-sug* and this appears 

to come very near to the Iranian prototype to be restored, which was 

*buksuk or *buxsux, perhaps *buxsuk. The only sensible explanation 

ever given of this word, which unfortunately escaped the sinologues, 

was advanced by W. TOMASCHEK, B who tentatively compared it with 

Gilaki (a Caspian dialect) buso ("alfalfa"). This would be satisfactory 

if it could be demonstrated that this buso is evolved from *bux-sox or 

the like. Further progress in our knowledge of Iranian dialectology 










Annam and the Annamese (cf. Cam Yuan or Yuon, Bahnar, Juon, Khmer Yuon, 

Stien Ju6n). This native name, however, was adapted to or assimilated with Sanskrit 

Yavana; for in the Sanskrit inscriptions of Campa, particularly in one of the reign 

of Jaya-Rudravarman dated A.D. 1092, Annam is styled Yavana (A. BERGAIGNE, 

L'Ancien royaume de Campa, p. 61 of the reprint from Journal asiatique, 1888). 

In the Old- Javanese poem Nagarakrtagama, completed in A.D. 1365, Yavana 

occurs twice as a name for Annam (H. J.ERN,Bijdragen tot de taal- land- en volkenkunde, 

Vol.LXXII, 1916, p. 399). Kern says that the question as to how the name of the 

Greeks was applied to Annam has not been raised or answered by any one; he over- 

looked the contribution of Bergaigne, who discussed the problem. 




1 Strabo (XV. n, 8) observes, "The name of Ariana is extended so as to include 

some part of Persia, Media, and the north of Bactria and Sogdiana; for these peoples 

speak nearly the same language." 




* Emphasized by R. GAUTHIOT in his posthumous work Trois Me"moires sur 

1'unite" linguistique des parlers iraniens (reprinted from the Memoires de la Societe 

de Linguistique de Paris, Vol. XX, 1916). 




8 The two characters are thus indeed written without the classifiers in the Han 

Annals. The writings J$C Jff *muk-suk of Kwo P'o and yfc |?l *muk-swok of Lo 

Yuan, author of the Er ya i (simply inspired by attempts at reading certain mean- 

ings into the characters), have the same phonetic value. In Annamese it is muk-tuk. 




4 Toung Pao, 1916, p. 500, No. 206. 




Pamir-Dialekte (Sitzber. Wiener Akad., 1880, p. 792). 










ALFALFA 213 




will no doubt supply the correct form of this word. We have to be 

mindful of the fact that the speech of those East-Iranian tribes, the 

advance-guard of Iran proper, with whom the Chinese first came in 

contact, has" never been committed to writing, and is practically lost 

to us. Only secluded dialects may still harbor remnants of that lost 

treasure. We have to be the more grateful to the Chinese for having 

rescued for us a few words of that extinct language, and to place *buksuk 

or *buxsux on record as the ancient Ferganian appellation of Medicago 

sativa. The first element of this word may survive in Sariqoll (a Pamir 

dialect) wux (''grass"). In Waxl, another Pamir idiom, alfalfa is 

styled wujerk; and grass, wu$. "Horse" is yds in Waxl, and vurj in 

Sariqoll. 1 




BRETSCHNEiDER 2 was content to say that mu-su is not Chinese, 

but most probably a foreign name. WATTERS, in his treatment of 

foreign words in Chinese, has dodged this term. T. W. KINGSMILL S 

is responsible for the hypothesis that mu-su "may have some connec- 

tion with the Mr/Sw) fioTavrj of Strabo." This is adopted by the Chinese 

Dictionary of GILES."* This Greek designation had certainly not pene- 

trated to Fergana, nor did the Iranian Ferganians use a Greek name 

for a plant indigenous to their country. It is also impossible to see 

what the phonetic coincidence between *muk-suk or *buk-suk and 

medike is supposed to be. 




The least acceptable explanation of mu-su is that recently pro- 

pounded by HiRTH, 6 who identifies it with a Turkish burtak, which is 

Osmanli, and refers to the pea. 6 Now, it is universally known that a 

language like Osmanli was not in existence in the second century B.C., 

but is a comparatively modern form of Turkish speech; and how Can 

K'ien should have picked up an Osmanli or any other Turkish word for 

a typically Iranian plant in Fergana, where there were no Turks at that 

time, is unintelligible. Nor is the alleged identification phonetically 

correct: Chinese mu, *muk, *buk, cannot represent bur, nor can su, 




1 Cf. R. B. SHAW, On the Ghalchah Languages (Journal As. Soc. Bengal, 1876, 

pp. 221, 231). According to TOMASCHEK (op. cit., p. 763), this word is evolved from 

*bharaka, Ossetic bairag ("good foal"). 




2 Bot. Sin., pt. Ill, p. 404. 




3 Journal China Branch Roy. As. Soc., Vol. XIV, 1879, p. 19. 




4 No. 8081, wrongly printed MeSuci?. The word POT&VTI is not connected with 

the name of the plant, but in the text of Strabo is separated from Mqdiicriv by eleven 

words. MriSiKrj is to be explained as scil. 7r6a, "Medic grass or fodder." 




6 Journal Am. Or. Soc., Vol. XXXVII, 1917, p. 145. 




6 Kara burtak means the "black pea" and denotes the vetch. 










214 SlNO-lRANICA 




*suk, stand for Zak. 1 The entire speculation is deplorable, and we are 

even expected "to allow for a change the word may have undergone 

from the original meaning within the last two thousand years"; but 

there is no trace of evidence that the Osmanli word has existed that 

length of time, neither can it be reasonably admitted that the signifi- 

cance of a word can change from "pea" to "alfalfa." The universal 

term in Central Asia for alfalfa is bidd 2 or beda? Djagatai bida. This 

word means simply "fodder, clover, hay." 4 According to TOMASCHEK, B 

this word is of Iranian origin (Persian beda). It is found also in Sariqoli, 

a Pamir dialect. 6 This would indicate very well that the Persians 

(and it could hardly be expected otherwise) disseminated the alfalfa 

to Turkistan. 




According to VAMBERY, 7 alfalfa appears to have been indigenous 

among the Turks from all times; this opinion, however, is only based 

on linguistic evidence, which is not convincing: a genuine Turkish 

name exists in Djagatai jonu$ka (read yonutka) and Osmanli yondza* 

(add Kasak-Kirgiz yonurcka), which simply means "green fodder, 

clover." Now, these dialects represent such recent forms of Turkish 

speech, that so far-reaching a conclusion cannot be based on them. 

As far as I know, in the older Turkish languages no word for alfalfa 

has as yet been found. 




A Sanskrit il A # 33L sai-pi-li-k'ie, *sak-bi-lik-kya, for the designa- 

tion of mu-su, is indicated by Li Si-cen, 9 who states that this is the 

word for mu-su used in the Kin kwan min kin & ^t $J ft (Suvar- 

naprabhasa-sutra). This is somewhat surprising, in view of the fact 

that there is no Sanskrit word for this plant known to us; 10 and there 

can be no doubt that the latter was introduced into India from Iran 

in comparatively recent times. BRETSCHNEIDER'S suggestion, 11 that in 




I Final k in transcriptions never answers to a final r, but only to k, g, or x (cf. 

also PELLIOT, T'oung Pao, 1912, p. 476). 




a A. STEIN, Khotan, Vol. I, p. 130. 




8 LE COQ, Sprichw6rter und Lieder aus Turfan, p. 85. 




4 I. KUNOS, Sulejman Efendi's Cagataj-Osman. Worterbuch, p. 26. 




6 Pamir-Dialekte, p. 792. 




8 R. B. SHAW, Journal As. Soc. Bengal, 1876, p. 231. 




7 Primitive Cultur des turko-tatarischen Volkes, p. 220. 




8 The etymology given of this word by Vambe'ry is fantastic and unacceptable. 




9 Pen ts'ao kan mu, Ch. 27, p. 3 b. Mu-su is classified by hiui under ts'ai 

("vegetables"). 




J0 This was already remarked by A. DE CANDOLLE (Origin of Cultivated Plants, 

p. 104). Also WATT gives only modern Indian vernacular names, three of which, 

spastu, sebist, and beda, are of Iranian origin. 




II Bot. Sin., pt. Ill, p. 404. 










ALFALFA 215 




Kabul the Trifolium giganteum is called sibarga, and Medicago sativa 

is styled riSka, is unsatisfactory. The word sibarga means "trefoil" 

(si, " three;" barga = Persian barak, varak, "leaf"), and is Iranian, not 

Sanskrit; the corresponding Sanskrit word is tripatra or triparna. The 

word riSka is Afghan; that is, likewise Iranian. 1 Considering the fact 

that nothing is known about the plant in question in early Indian 

sources, it is highly improbable that it should figure in a Buddhist 

Sutra of the type of the Suvarnaprabhasa; and I think that Li Si-cen 

is mistaken as to the meaning of the word, which he says he encountered 

there. 




The above transcription occurs also in the Fan yi min yi tsi 

(section 27) and answers to Sanskrit qdka-vrika, the word qaka denoting 

any eatable herb or vegetable, and vfika (or baka) referring to a certain 

plant not yet identified (cf. the analogous formation $dka-bilva, "egg- 

plant"). It is not known what herb is to be understood by qaka-vfika, 

and the Chinese translation mu-su may be merely a makeshift, though 

it is not impossible that the Sanskrit compound refers to some species 

of Medicago. We must not lose sight of the fact that the equations 

established in the Chinese-Sanskrit dictionaries are for the greater part 

merely bookish or lexicographical, and do not relate to plant introduc- 

tions. The Buddhist translators were merely anxious to find a suitable 

equivalent for an Indian term. This process is radically different from 

the plant-names introduced together with the plants from Iranian, 

Indian, or Southeast-Asiatic regions: here we face living realities, 

there we have to do with literary productions. Two other examples 

may suffice. The Fan yi min yi tsi (section 24) offers a Sanskrit botani- 

cal name in the form U UK 3fi cen-t'ou-kia, anciently *tsin(tin)-du-k'ie, 

answering to Sanskrit tinduka (Diospyros embryopteris) , a dense ever- 

green small tree common throughout India and Burma. The Chinese 

gloss explains the Indian word by Si ffi, which is the well-known Dio- 

spyros kaki of China and Japan, not, however, found in ancient India; it 

was but recently introduced into the Botanical Garden of Calcutta by 

Col. Kyd, and the Chinese gardeners employed there call it tin ("Chi- 

nese"). 2 In this case it signifies only the Diospyros embryopteris of 

India. Under the heading kan-sun hian (see p. 455), which denotes the 

spikenard (Nardostachys jatamansi), Li Si-Sen gives a Sanskrit term 

ir Sfl^ k'u-mi-Fe, *ku-mi-c'i, likewise taken from the Suvarnapra- 

bhasasutra; this corresponds to Sanskrit kunci or kuncika, which applies 

to three different plants, i. Abrus precatorius, 2. Nigella indica, 




1 There are, further, in Afghan sebist (connected with Persian supust) and 

dureSta. 




* W. ROXBURGH, Flora Indica, p. 412. 










2l6 SlNO-lRANICA 




3. Trigonella foenum graecum. In this case the compromise is a failure, 

or the identification of kunci with kan-sun even results from an error; 

the Sanskrit term for the spikenard is gandhamdmsl. 




We must not draw inferences from mere Sanskrit names, either, as to 

the origin of Chinese plants, unless there is more substantial evidence. 

Thus STUART 1 remarks under li ^ (Prunus domestica) that the Sanskrit 

equivalent J It j& ku-lin-kia indicates that this plum may have been 

introduced from India or Persia. Prunus domestica, however, is a native 

of China, mentioned in the Si kin, Li ki, and in Mon-tse. The Sino- 

Indian word is given in the Fan yi min yi tsi (section 24) with the trans- 

lation li. The only corresponding Sanskrit word is kulinga, which 

denotes a kind of gall. The question is merely of explaining a Sanskrit 

term to the Chinese, but this has no botanical or historical value for the 

Chinese species. 




Thus the records of the Chinese felicitously supplement the meagre 

notices of alfalfa on the part of the ancients, and lend its history 

the proper perspective: we recognize the why and how of the world- 

wide propagation of this useful economic plant. 2 Aside from Fergana, 

the Chinese of the Han period discovered mu-su also in Ki-pin (Kash- 

mir), 8 and this fact is of some importance in regard to the early geo- 

graphical distribution of the species; for in Kashmir, as well as in 

Afghanistan and Baluchistan, it is probably spontaneous. 4 




Mu-su gardens are mentioned under the Emperor Wu (A.D. 265-290) 

of the Tsin dynasty, and the post-horses of the T'ang dynasty were fed 

with alfalfa. 5 




The fact that alfalfa was used as an article of human food under 

the T'ang we note from the story of Sie Lin-Si l ^ ,, preceptor at 

the Court of the Emperor Yuan Tsun (A.D. 713-755), who wrote a 

versified complaint of the too meagre food allotted to him, in which 

alfalfas with long stems were the chief ingredient. 6 The good teacher, 

of course, was not familiar with the highly nutritive food-values of 

the plant. 




1 Chinese Materia Medica, p. 358. 




2 It is singular that A. DE CANDOLLE, in his Origin of Cultivated Plants, while he 

has conscientiously reproduced from Bretschneider all his plants wrongly ascribed 

to Can K'ien, does not make any reference to China in speaking of Medicago 

(pp. 102-104). In f act > i ts history has never before been outlined correctly. 




3 Ts'ien Han $u, Ch. 96 A. 




4 A. DE CANDOLLE, op. cit., p. 103; G. T. VIGNE, Travels in Kashmir, Vol. II, p. 455. 

6 S. MATSUDA ffi EB / A On Medicago sativa and the Species of Medicago 




in China (Botanical Magazine fit ft $ ft fj, Tokyo, Vol. XXI, 1907, p. 243). 

This is a very interesting and valuable study written in Japanese. 

e Cf . C. PTILLON, Allusions litte"raires, p. 350. 










ALFALFA 217 










According to the Su i ki # M IS, written by Zen Fan > B& in 

the beginning of the sixth century, "the mu-su (alfalfa) gardens of 

Can K'ien are situated in what is now Lo-yafi; mu-su was originally 

a vegetable in the land of the Hu, and K'ien was the first to obtain it 

in the Western Countries." A work, Kiu Vi ki i)l ftfe IB, 1 says that east 

of the capital there were mu-su gardens, in which there were three 

pestles driven by water-power. 




The Si kin tsa ki ffi M H IB 2 states, "In the Lo-yu gardens H& j$ la 

(in the capital C'an-nan) there are rose-bushes SC?6 ftf (Rosa rugosa), 

which grow spontaneously. At the foot of these, there is abundance 

of mu-su, called also hwaifun H amp;amp; C embracing the wind'), sometimes 

kwanfun jfe l& ('brilliant wind'). 3 The people of Mou-lin j$c HI 4 style 

the plant lien-Si ts'ao 31 1 ^ ('herb with connected branches')." 5 




The Lo yan k*ie Ian ki & Bi flfl H IB, a record of the Buddhist 

monasteries in the capital Lo-yan, written by Yan Huan-Si tlf |f *L in 

A.D. 547 or shortly afterwards, says that "Huan-wu M. B is situated 

north-east of the Ta-hia Gate ^C JE P*J ; now it is called Kwan-fun 

Garden jfc R M, producing mu-su." Kwan-fun , as shown by the Si kin 

tsa ki, is a synonyme of mu-su. 




K'ou Tsun-i, in his Pen ts*ao yen i? written in A.D. 1116, notes that 

alfalfa is abundant in Sen-si, being used for feeding cattle and horses, 

and is also consumed by the population, but it should not be eaten in 

large quantity. Under the Mongols, the cultivation of alfalfa was 

much encouraged, especially in order to avert the danger of famines; 7 

and gardens were maintained to raise alfalfa for the feeding of horses. 8 

According to Li Si-6en (latter part of the sixteenth century), 9 it was in 

his time a common, wild plant in the fields everywhere, but was culti- 

vated in en-si and Kan-su. He apparently means, however, Medicago 

denticulata, which is a wild species and a native of China. FORBES 




1 T'ai p*in yii Ian, Ch. 824, p. 9. 




2 That is, Miscellaneous Records of the Western Capital (C'an-nan in Sen-si), 

written by Wu Kun ^| J) of the sixth century A.D. 




8 The explanation given for these names is thus: the wind constantly whistles 

in these gardens, and the sunlight lends brilliancy to the flowers. 










4 Ancient name for the present district of Hin-p'in | zp in the prefecture of 

Si-nan, Sen-si. 




6 T'ai p'ifi yu Ian, Ch. 996, p. 4 b. 




6 Ch. 19, p. 3 (ed. of Lu Sin-yuan). 




7 Yuan Si, Ch. 93, p. 5 b. 




8 Ibid., Ch. 91, p. 6 b. 




9 Pen ts*ao kan mu, Ch. 28, p. 3 b. 










fl8 SlNO-lRANICA 




and HEMSLEY I give as Chinese species Medicago denticulata, falcata* 

and lupulina (the black Medick or nonsuch), M. lupulina "apparently 

common, and from the most distant parts," and say with reference to 

Medicago sativa that it is cultivated in northern China, and also occurs 

in a wild state, though it is probably not indigenous. This "wild" 

Medicago sativa may be an escape from cultivation. It is an interesting 

point that those wild species are named ye mu-su ("wild alfalfa"), 

which goes to show that these were observed by the Chinese only after 

the introduction of the imported cultivated species. 8 Wu K'i-tsiin 4 

has figured two ye mu-su, following his illustration of the mu-su, one 

being Medicago lupulina, the other M. denticulata. 




The Japanese call the plant uma-goyaSi ("horse-nourishing"). 5 

MATSUMURA 6 enumerates four species: M. sativa: murasaki ("purple") 

umagoyasi; 1 M. denticulata: umagoyasi; M. lupulina: kometsubu- 

umagoyasi; and M. minima: ko-umagoyasi. 




In the Tibetan dialect of Ladakh, alfalfa is known as ol. This word 

refers to the Medicago sativa indigenous to Kashmir or possibly intro- 

duced there from Iran. In Tibet proper the plant is unknown. In 

Armenia occur Medicago sativa, M. falcata, M. agrestis, and M. 

lupulina. 6 




Under the title "Notice sur la plante mou-sou ou luzerne chinoise 

par C. de Skattschkoff, suivie d'une autre notice sur la me'me plante 

traduite du chinois par G. PAUTHIER," a brief article of 16 pages appeared 

in Paris, 1864, as a reprint from the Revue de V Orient? Skattschkoff, 

who had spent seven years in Peking, subsequently became Russian 

consul in Dsungaria, and he communicates valuable information on the 

agriculture of Medicago in that region. He states that seeds of this 




1 Journal Linnean Soc., Vol. XXIII, p. 154. 




* Attempts are being made to introduce and to cultivate this species in the 

United States (cf. OAKLEY and CARVER, Medicago Falcata, U. S. Department of 

Agriculture, Bull. No. 428, 1917). 




1 We shall renew this experience in the case of the grape-vine and the walnut. 

4 Ci wu min li t'u k'ao, Ch. 3, pp. 58, 59. 




* In the same manner, Manchu morxo is formed from morin ("horse") and 

orxo ("grass"). 




8 Shoku butsu-mei-i, Nos. 183-184. 




7 The flower of this species is purple-colored. 




8 A. BEGUINOT and P. N, DIRATZSUYAN, Contribute alia flora dell' Armenia, 

P- 57- 




9 The work of Pauthier is limited to a translation of the notice on the plant in 

the Ci wu mi* Si t'u k'ao. The name Yu-lou nun frequently occurring in this work 

does not refer to a treatise on agriculture, as conceived by Pauthier, but is the literary 

style of Wu K'i-tsun, author of that work. 










ALFALFA 219 




plant were for the first time sent from China to Russia in 1840, and 

that he himself has been active for six years in propagating it in Russia, 

Livonia, Esthonia, and Finland. This is not to be doubted, but the 

point I venture to question is that the plant should not have been 

known in Russia prior to 1840. Not only do we find in the Russian 

language the words medunka (from Greek medike) and the European 

I'utserna (lucerne) for the designation of Medicago sativa, but also 

krasni ("red") burkun, letuxa, lugovoi v'azel ("Coronilla of the 

meadows"); the word burkun, burunduk, referring to Medicago falcata 

(called also yumorki), buruntik to M. lupulina. It is hard to realize 

that all these terms should have sprung up since 1840, and that the 

Russians should not have received information about this useful plant 

from European, Iranian, or Turkish peoples. A. DE CANDOLLE* ob- 

serves, "In the south of Russia, a locality mentioned by some authors, 

it is perhaps the result of cultivation as well as in the south of Europe." 

Judging from the report of N. E. HANSEN,* it appears that three species 

of Medicago (M. falcata, M. platycarpa, and M. ruthenica) are indigenous 

to Siberia. 




The efforts of our Department of Agriculture to promote and to 

improve the cultivation of alfalfa in this country are well known; for 

this purpose also seeds from China have been introduced. Argentine 

chiefly owes to alfalfa a great amount of its cattle-breeding. 3 




1 Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 103. 




2 The Wild Alfalfas and Clovers of Siberia, pp. 11-15 (Bureau of Plant Industry, 

Bull. No. 150, Washington, 1909). 




8 Cf. I. B. LORENZETTI, La Alfafa en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1913, 360 p.)- 










THE GRAPE-VINE 




2. The grape-vine (Vitis wnifera) belongs to the ancient cultivated 

plants of western Asia and Egypt. It is not one of the most ancient 

cultivations, for cereals and many kinds of pulse are surely far earlier, 

but it is old enough to have its beginnings lost in the dawn of history. 

Viticulture represents such a complexity of ideas, of a uniform and 

persistent character throughout the ancient world, that it can have 

been disseminated but from a single centre. Opinions as to the loca- 

tion of this focus are of course divided, and our present knowledge of 

the subject does not permit us to go beyond more or less probable 

theories. Certain it is that the primeval home of vine-growing is to 

be sought in the Orient, and that it was propagated thence to Hellas 

and Italy, while the Romans (according to others, the Greeks) trans- 

planted the vine to Gaul and the banks of the Rhine. 1 For botanical 

reasons, A. DE CANDOLLE 2 was inclined to regard the region south of 

the Caucasus as "the central and perhaps the most ancient home of 

the species." In view of the Biblical tradition of Noah planting the 

grape-vine near the Ararat, 8 it is a rather attractive hypothesis to con- 

ceive of Armenia as the country from which the knowledge of the 

grape took its starting-point. 4 However, we must not lose sight of the 

fact that both vine and wine were known in Egypt for at least three or 

four millenniums B.C., 5 and were likewise familiar in Mesopotamia at 

a very early date. This is not the place for a discussion of 0. SCHRADER'S 

theory 6 that the name and cultivation of the vine are due to Indo- 

Europeans of anterior Asia; the word for "wine" may well be of Indo- 

European or, more specifically, Armenian origin, but this does not 




1 Cf . the excellent study of G. CURTEL, La Vigne et le vin chez les Remains 

(Paris, 1903). See also A. STUMMER, Zur Urgeschichte der Rebe und des Weinbaues 

(Mitt. Anthr. Ges. Wien, 1911, pp. 283-296). 




* Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 192. 

8 Genesis, ix, 20. 




4 Cf. R. BILLIARD, La Vigne dans 1'antiquite*, p. 31 (Lyon, 1913). This is a well 

illustrated and artistic volume of 560 pages and one of the best monographs on the 

subject. As the French are masters in the art of viticulture, so they have also pro- 

duced the best literature on the science of vine and wine. Of botanical works, 

J.-M. GUILLON, Etude g
6 V. LORET, Flore pharaonique, p. 99. 
6 In HEHN, Kulturpflanzen, pp. 91-95. 

220 



THE GRAPE-VINE 221 

prove that the origin of viticulture itself is traceable to Indo-Europeans. 
The Semitic origin seems to me to be more probable. The Chinese 
received the grape-vine in late historical times from Fergana, an Iranian 
country, as a cultivation entirely unknown in previous epochs; and 
it is therefore sufficient for our purpose to emphasize the fact that 
vine-culture in its entire range was at that time firmly established in 
Western Asia, inclusive of Iran. 

The first knowledge of the cultivated vine (Vitis vim/era) and of wine 
produced from its grapes was likewise obtained by the Chinese through 
the memorable mission of General Can K'ien, when in 128 B.C. he 
travelled through Fergana and Sogdiana on his way to the Yue-i 
and spent a year in Bactria. As to the people of Fergana (Ta-yuan) , 
he reported, "They have wine made of grapes." The same fact he 
learned regarding the Parthians (An-si). It is further stated in the 
same chapter of the Si ki that the wealthy among the people of Fergana 
stored grape- wine in large quantity up to ten thousand gallons (U, a 
dry measure) for a long time, keeping it for several decades without 
risk of deterioration; they were fond of drinking wine in the same 
manner as their horses relished alfalfa. The Chinese envoys took the 
seeds of both plants along to their country, and the Son of Heaven was 
the first to plant alfalfa and the vine in fertile soil; and when envoys 
from abroad arrived at the Court, they beheld extensive cultivations of 
these plants not far from the imperial palace. The introduction of the vine 
is as well authenticated as that of alfalfa. The main point to be noted 
is that the grape, in like manner as alfalfa, and the art of making wine, 
were encountered by the Chinese strictly among peoples of Aryan 
descent, principally of the Iranian family, not, however, among any 
Turkish tribes. 

According to the Han Annals, the kingdom Li-yi IS ~^, which 
depended on Sogdiana, produced grapes; and, as the water of that 
country is excellent, its wine had a particular reputation. 2 

K'aii (Sogdiana) is credited with grapes in the Annals of the Tsin 
Dynasty. 3 Also grape-wine was abundant there, and the rich kept up to 
a thousand gallons of it. 4 The Sogdians relished wine, and were fond of 
songs and dances. 5 Likewise in Si (Tashkend) it was a favorite bever- 

1 This is also the conclusion of J. HOOPS (Waldbaume und Kulturpflanzen, 
p. 561). 

2 Hou Han Su, Ch. 118, p. 6 (cf. CHAVANNES, T'oung Pao, 1907, p. 195). 
8 Tsin $u, Ch. 97, p. 6 b (ibid., p. 6: grape- wine in Ta-yuan or Fergana). 
4 Sui $u, Ch. 83, p. 4 b. 

6 T'an Su, Ch. 221 B, p. I. 



221 SlNO-lRANICA 

age. 1 When the Sogdian K'an Yen-tien in the first part of the seventh 
century A.D. established a Sogdian colony south of the Lob Nor, he 
founded four new cities, one of which was called " Grape City" (P'u- 
t'ao 6'en) ; for the vine was planted in the midst of the town. 1 

The Iranian Ta Yue-Ci or Indo-Scythians must also have been in 
possession of the vine, as we are informed by a curious text in the 
Kin lou tse & 81 -dF, 3 written by the Emperor Yuan 7G (A.D. 552-555) 
of the Liang dynasty. "The people in the country of the Great Yue-c'i 
are clever in making wine from grapes, flowers, and leaves. Sometimes 
they also use roots and vegetable juice, which they cause to ferment. 4 
These flowers resemble those of the clove-tree (tin-hian T ?, Caryo- 
phyllus aromaticus), but are green or bright-blue. At the time of 
spring and summer, the stamens of the flowers are carried away and 
scattered around by the wind like the feathers of the bird Iwan St. 
In the eighth month, when the storm blows over the leaves, they are 
so much damaged and torn that they resemble silk rags: hence people 
speak of a grape-storm (p'u-t*aofun) y or also call it 'leaves-tearing storm* 
(luy*/**ikM&)," 

Finally we know also that the Aryan people of Ku5a, renowned 
for their musical ability, songs, and dances, were admirers of grape- 
wine, some families even storing in their houses up to a thousand hu 
$ of the beverage. This item appears to have been contained in the 
report of General Lu Kwan B 3fc, who set out for the conquest of Kua 
in A.D. 384. 8 

In the same manner as the Chinese discovered alfalfa in Ki-pin 
(Kashmir), they encountered there also the vine. 8 Further, they found 
it in the countries Tsiu-mo IL ^ and Nan-tou H 5fa. 

1 T'ai p'in hwan yu ki, Ch. 186, p. 7 b; also in Yen-k'i (Karasar): Cou Su, 
Ch. 50, p. 4 b. 

1 PELLIOT, Journal asiatique, 1916, 1, p. 122. 8 Ch. 5, p. 23. 

4 Strabo (XI. xm, 1 1) states that the inhabitants of the mountainous region 
of northern Media made a wine from some kind of roots. 

1 Other sources fix the date in the year 382 (see SYLVAIN Lvi, Le "Tokharien 
B," langue de Koutcha, Journal asiatique, 1913, II, p. 333). The above fact is 
derived from the Hou Han lu ^ $, fift, quoted in the T'ai p'in yu Ian (Ch. 972, p. 3); 
see also T'an Su, Ch. 221 A, p. 8. We owe to S. Le"vi the proof that the people of 
Kuc"a belong to the Indo-European family, and that their language is identical with 
what was hitherto known from the manuscripts discovered in Turkistan as 
Tokharian B. 

8 Ts'ien Han Su, Ch. 96 A, p. 5. Kashmir was still famed for itfi grapes in the 
days of the Emperor Akbar (H. BLOCHMANN, Ain I Akbari, Vol. I, p. 65), but at 
present viticulture is on the decline there (WATT, Commerical Products of India, 

pp. 1 1 12, III4). 

T Regarding this name, see CHAVANNES, Les Pays d'occident d'apres le Wei 
lio (T'oung Pao, 1905, p. 536). 



THE GRAPE-VINE 223 

In the T'ang period the Chinese learned also that the people of 
Fu-lin (Syria) relished grape-wine, 1 and that the country of the Arabs 
(Ta-si) produced grapes, the largest of the size of fowl's eggs. J In 
other texts such grapes are also ascribed to Persia. 3 At that epoch, 
Turkistan had fallen into the hands of Turkish tribes, who absorbed 
the culture of their Iranian predecessors; and it became known to the 
Chinese that the Uigur had vine and wine. 

Viticulture was in a high state of development in ancient Iran. 
Strabo 4 attributes to Margiana (in the present province of Khorasan) 
vines whose stock it would require two men with outstretched arms to 
clasp, and clusters of grapes two cubits long. Aria, he continues, is 
described as similarly fertile, the wine being still richer, and keeping 
perfectly for three generations in unpitched casks. Bactriana, which 
adjoins Aria, abounds in the same productions, except the olive. 

The ancient Persians were great lovers of wine. The best vintage- 
wines were served at the royal table. 5 The couch of Darius was over- 
shadowed by a golden vine, presented by Pythius, a Lydian. 8 The 
inscription of Persepolis informs us that fifty congius 7 of sweet wine 
and five thousand congius of ordinary wine were daily delivered to the 
royal house. 8 The office of cup-bearer in the palace was one of im- 
portance. 9 The younger Cyrus, when he had wine of a peculiarly fine 
flavor, was in the habit of sending half-emptied flagons of it to some 
of his friends, with a message to this effect: "For some time Cyrus has 
not found a pleasanter wine than this one; and he therefore sends some 
to you, begging you to drink it to-day with those whom you love 
best." 10 

Strabo 11 relates that the produce of Carmania is like that of Persia, 
and that among other productions there is the vine. "The Carmanian 

1 HIRTH, China and the Roman Orient, pp. 58, 63. 

a Tai p*in hwan yii ki, Ch. 186, p. 15 b. 

3 For instance, Pen ts'ao yen i, Ch. 18, p. I (ed. of Lu Sin-yuan). 

4 II. i, 14, and XI. x, 2. 

6 Esther, i, 7 ("And they gave them drink in vessels of gold, the vessels being 
diverse one from another, and royal wine in abundance, according to the state of 
the king"). 

8 Herodotus, vn, 27; Athenaeus, xn, 514 f. According to G. W. ELDERKIN 
(Am. Journal of Archaeology, Vol. XXI, 1917, p. 407), the ultimate source of this 
motive would be Assyrian. 

7 A measure of capacity equal to about six pints. 

8 JORET, Plantes dans 1'antiquite", Vol. II, p. 95. 
*Xenophon, Cyropaedia, I. in, 8-9. 

10 Xenophon, Anabasis, I. ix, 25. 
11 XV. n, 14. 



224 SlNO-lRANICA 

vine, as we call it, often bears bunches of grapes of two cubits in size, 
the seeds being very numerous and very large; probably the plant 
grows in its native soil with great luxuriance." The kings of Persia were 
not content, however, with wines of native growth; but when Syria 
was united with their empire, the Chalybonian wine of Syria became 
their privileged beverage. 1 This wine, according to Posidonius, was 
made in Damascus, Syria, from vines planted there by the Persians. 2 

Herodotus 3 informs us that the Persians are very fond of wine and 
consume it in large quantities. It is also their custom to discuss im- 
portant affairs in a state of intoxication; and on the following morning 
their decisions are put before them by the master of the house where 
the deliberations have been held. If they approve of the decision in the 
state of sobriety, they act accordingly; if not, they set it aside. When 
sober at their first deliberation, they always reconsider the matter under 
the influence of wine. In a similar manner, Strabo 4 says that their 
consultations on the most important affairs are carried on while drink- 
ing, and that they consider the resolutions made at that time more to 
be depended upon than those made when sober. In the Sahnameh, 
the Persian epic, deliberations are held during drinking-bouts, but 
decision is postponed till the following day. 6 Cambyses was ill reputed 
for his propensity for wine. 6 Deploring the degeneracy of the Persians, 
Xenophon 7 remarks, "They continue eating and drinking till those 
who sit up latest go to retire. It was a rule among them not to bring 
large cups to their banquets, evidently thinking that abstinence from 
drinking to excess would less impair their bodies and minds. The 
custom of not bringing such vessels still continues; but they drink so 
excessively that instead of bringing in, they are themselves carried out, 
as they are no longer able to walk upright." Procopius, the great 
Byzantine historian of the sixth century, 8 says that of all men the 
Massagetae (an Iranian tribe) are the most intemperate drinkers. So 

1 Strabo, XV. in, 22. 

2 Athenaeus, I. 

3 I, 133. 

4 XV. Ill, 20. 

6 F. SPIEGEL, Eranische Altertumskunde, Vol. Ill, p. 672. Cf . what JOHN FRYER 
(New Account of East India and Persia being Nine Years' Travels 1672-81, Vol. II, 
p. 210, ed. of Hakluyt Society) says of the modern Persians: "It is incredible to see 
what quantities they drink at a merry-meeting, and how unconcerned the next day 
they appear, and brisk about their business, and will quaff you thus a whole week 
together." 

6 Herodotus, in, 34. 

7 Cyropaedia, VIII. vm, 9-10. 

8 Historikon, III. XH, 8. 



THE GRAPE-VINE 225 

were also the Sacae, who, maddened with wine, were defeated by 
Cyrus. 1 In the same passage, Strabo speaks of a Bacchanalian festival 
of the Persians, in which men and women, dressed in Scythian style, 
passed day and night in drinking and wanton play. On the other 
hand, it must not be forgotten that such judgments passed by one 
nation on another are usually colored or exaggerated, and must be 
accepted only at a liberal discount; also temperance was preached in 
ancient Persia, and intemperance was severely punished. 2 With all 
the evils of over-indulgence in wine and the social dangers of alcohol, 
the historian, whose duty it is to represent and to interpret phe- 
nomena as they are, must not lose sight of the fact that wine con- 
stitutes a factor of economic, social, and cultural value. It has largely 
contributed to refine and to intensify social customs and to heighten 
sociability, as well as to promote poetry, music, and dancing. It has 
developed into an element of human civilization, which must not 
be underrated. Temperance literature is a fine thing, but who would 
miss the odes of Anakreon, Horace, or Hafiz? 

The word for the grape, brought back by Can K'ien and still current 
in China and Japan (budo), is Sf amp;amp; (ancient phonetic spelling of the 
Han Annals, subsequently IS ^) 3 p*u-t'ao, *bu-daw, "grape, vine". Since 
Can K'ien made the acquaintance of the grape in Ta-yuan (Fergana) 
and took its seeds along from there to China, it is certain that he also 
learned the word in Fergana; hence we are compelled to assume that 
*bu-daw is Ferganian, and corresponds to an Iranian *budawa or 
*buSawa, formed with a suffix wa or awa, from a stem buda, which in 
my opinion may be connected with New Persian bdda ("wine") and 
Old Persian ^and/cT? ( "wine- vessel ")= Middle Persian bdtak, New 
Persian bddye* The Sino-Iranian word might also be conceived as a 
dialectic form of Avestan madav ("wine from berries"). 

It is well known that attempts have been made to derive the Chinese 
word from Greek Corpus ("a bunch of grapes"). ToMASCHEK 5 was 
the first to offer this suggestion; T. KiNGSMiLL 6 followed in 1879, and 

1 Strabo, XI. vm, 5. 

2 Cf. JACKSON, in Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, Vol. II, p. 679. 

3 The graphic development is the same as in the case" of mu-su (see above, p. 212). 

4 Cf. HORN, Neupersische Etymologic, No. 155. The Chinese are fond of etymol- 
ogizing, and Li Si-c'en explains the word p'u-t*ao thus: "When people drink (p'u 
SI) it, they become intoxicated (t'ao 0)." The joke is not so bad, but it is 
no more than a joke. 

6 Sogdiana, Sitzungsber. Wiener Akad., 1877, p. 133. 

6 Journal China Branch Roy. As. Soc., Vol. XIV, pp. 5, 19. 



226 SlNO-lRANICA 

HiRTH 1 endorsed Kingsmill. No one gave a real demonstration of the 
case. Tomaschek argued that the dissemination of the vine in Central 
Asia is connected with Macedonian-Greek rule and Hellenic influence. 
This is decidedly wrong, for the vine grows spontaneously in all north- 
ern Iranian regions; and its cultivation in Iran is traceable to a great 
antiquity, and is certainly older there than in Greece. The Greeks 
received vine and wine from western Asia. 2 Greek Corpus, in all likeli- 
hood, is a Semitic loan-word. 3 It is highly improbable that the people 
of Fergana would have employed a Greek word for the designation of 
a plant which had been cultivated in their dominion for ages, nor is 
there any evidence for the silent admission that Greek was ever known 
or spoken in Fergana at the time of Can K'ien's travels. The influence 
of Greek in the Iranian domain is extremely slight: nothing Greek has 
as yet been found in any ancient manuscripts from Turkistan. In 
my opinion, there is no connection between p'u-fao and Corpus, nor 
between the latter and Iranian *budawa. 

It is well known that several species of wild vine occur in China, in 
the Amur region, and Japan. 4 The ancient work Pie lu is credited with 
the observation that the vine (p'u-t'ao) grows in Lun-si (Kan-su) , Wu-yuan 
3C J^ (north of the Ordos), and in Tun-hwan (in Kan-su). 5 Li Si-6en 
therefore argues that in view of this fact the vine must of old have existed 
in Lun-si in pre-Han times, but had not yet advanced into Sen-si. It 
is inconceivable how BRETSCHNEiDER 6 can say that the introduction of 
the grape by Can K'ien is inconsistent with the notice of the grape in 
the earliest Chinese materia medica. There is, in fact, nothing alarming 
about it: the two are different plants; wild vines are natives of northern 

1 Fremde Einflusse in der chin. Kunst, p. 28; and Journal Am. Or. Soc., 
Vol. XXXVII, 1917, p. 146. Hirth's arguments are based on unproved premises. The 
grape-design on the so-called grape mirrors has nothing to do with Greek or Bactrian 
art, but comes from Iranian-Sasanian art. No grape mirrors were turned out under the 
Han, they originated in the so-called Leu-2'ao period from the fourth to the seventh 
century. The attribution "Han" simply rests on the puerile assumption made in 
the Po ku Vu lu that, because Can K'ien introduced the grape, the artistic designs 
of grapes must also have come along with the same movement. 

2 Only a "sinologue" could assert that the grape was "originally introduced 
from Greece, vid Bactria, about 130 B.C." (GILES, Chinese Dictionary, No. 9497). 

8 MUSS-ARNOLT, Transactions Am. Phil. Assoc., Vol. XXIII, 1892, p. 142. 
The variants in spelling 06(rTpi>xos, /S6rpuxos, plainly indicate the status of a loan- 
word. In Dioscorides (in, 120) it denotes an altogether different plant, Chen- 
opodium botrys. 

4 The Lo-lo of Yun-nan know a wild grape by the name ko-p*i-ma, with large, 
black, oblong berries (P. VIAL, Dictionnaire francais-lolo, p. 276). The grape is 
te-mu-se-ma in Nyi Lo-lo, sa-lu-zo or sa-o-zo in Ahi Lo-lo. 

1 Pen ts'ao kan mu, Ch. 33, p. 3. 

fl Bot. Sin., pt. Ill, p. 438. 



THE GRAPE-VINE 227 

China, but have never resulted in a cultivation; the cultivated species 
(Vitis vinifera) was introduced from Iran, and never had any relation 
to the Chinese wild species (Vitis bryoniaefolid) . In a modern work, 
Mun ts'uan tsa yen ^ JR. IS W, 1 which gives an intelligent discussion 
of this question, the conclusion is reached that the species from Fergana 
is certainly different from that indigenous to China. The only singular 
point is that the Pie lu employs the Ferganian word p*u-fao with refer- 
ence to the native species; but this is not an anachronism, for the Pie lu 
was written in post-Christian times, centuries after Can K'ien; and it 
is most probable that it was only the introduced species which gave the 
impetus to the discovery of the wild species, so that the latter received 
the same name. 2 

Another wild vine is styled yin-yii 21 j| (Vitis bryoniaefolia or 
V. labmsca), which appears in the writings of T'ao Hun-kin (A.D. 
451-536) and in the T*ah pen ts'ao of Su Kun, but this designation has 
reference only to a wild vine of middle and northern China. Yen Si-ku 
(A.D. 579-645), in his K'an miu len su^l^lE f-, 3 ironically remarks 
that regarding the yin-yii as a grape is like comparing the &' amp;gt; (Poncirus 
trifoliata) of northern China with an orange (kii f|j) ; that the yin-yu, 
although a kind of p'u-fao, is widely different from the latter; and that 
the yin-yii of Kian-nan differs again from the yin-yii of northern China. 
HIRTH'S theory, 4 that this word might represent a transcription of 
New Persian angur, is inadmissible. We have no right to regard Chinese 
words as of foreign origin, unless these are expressly so indicated by the 
Chinese philologists who never fail to call attention to such borrowing. 
If this is not the case, specific and convincing reasons must be adduced 
for the assumption that the word in question cannot be Chinese. There 
is no tradition whatever that would make yin-yii an Iranian or a foreign 
word. The opposite demonstration lacks any sound basis: New Persian, 
which starts its career from the end of the tenth century, could not come 
into question here, but at the best Middle Persian, and angur is a 
strictly New-Persian type. A word like angur would have been dis- 
sected by the Chinese into an+gut (gur), but not into an+uk; more- 
over, it is erroneous to suppose that final k can transcribe final r; 6 
in Iranian transcriptions, Chinese final k corresponds to Iranian k, 
g, or the spirant x> It is further inconceivable that the Chinese might 

1 T'u Su tsi t'efi, xx, Ch. 113. 

2 Compare the analogous case of the walnut. 
8 Ch. 8, p. 8 b (ed. of Hu pei ts*un Su). 

4 Fremde Einflusse in der chinesischen Kunst, p. 17. 
8 Compare above, p. 214. 



228 SlNO-lRANICA 

have applied a Persian word designating the cultivated grape to a 
wild vine which is a native of their country, and which particularly 
grows in the two Kiafi provinces of eastern China. The Gazetteer of 
Su-c'ou 1 says expressly that the name for the wild grape, $an p'u-t'ao, 
in the Kiaii provinces, is yin-yii. Accordingly it may be an ancient 
term of the language of Wu. The Pen ts'ao kan mu* has treated yin-yii 
as a separate item, and Li i-6en annotates that the meaning of the 
term is unexplained. It seems to me that for the time being we have 
to acquiesce in this verdict. Yen-yu $ J| and yin-$e I? ^ are added 
by him as synonymes, after the Mao & ^ j^F and the Kwan ya, while 
ye p*u-t'ao ("wild grape") is the common colloquial term (also t'en 
min or mu lun jSl & /fv H). It is interesting to note that the earliest 
notices of this plant come only from Su Kun and C'en Ts'an-k'i of the 
T'ang dynasty. In other words, it was noted by the Chinese naturalists 
more than seven centuries later than the introduction of the cultivated 
grape, sufficient evidence for the fact that the two are not in any way 
interrelated. 

It must not be imagined that with Can K'ien's deed the introduction 
of the vine into China was an accomplished fact; but introductions of 
seeds were subsequently repeated, and new varieties were still imported 
from Turkistan by K'an-hi. There are so many varieties of the grape 
in China, that it is hardly credible that all these should have at once 
been brought over by a single man. It is related in the Han Annals 
that Li Kwan-li $ M fj, being General of Er-i Bip (*Ni-'i), after 
the subjugation of Ta-ytian, obtained grapes which he took along to 
China. 

Three varieties of grape are indicated in the Kwan &',* written 
before A.D. 527, yellow, black, and white. The same varieties are 
enumerated in the Yu yan tsa tsu, while Li Si-Sen speaks of four varie- 
ties, a round one, called ts*ao lun lu 3 HI $fc (" vegetable dragon- 
pearls"); a long one, ma Zu p*u-t*ao (see below); a white one, called 
"crystal grapes" (Swi tsin p*u-t*ao); and a black one, called "purple 
grapes" (tse ^ p'u-t*ao), and assigns to Se-6'wan a green (ifik) grape, 
to Yiin-nan grapes of the size of a jujube. 4 Su Sun of the Sung mentions 
a variety of seedless grapes. 

1 Su lou fu ti, Ch. 20, p. 7 b. 

2 Ch. 33, p. 4. 

8 T'ai p'in yii Ian, Ch. 972, p. 3. 

4 T'an Ts'ui J ^ , in his valuable description of Yun-nan (Tien hai yii 
hen li, published in 1799, Ch. 10, p. 2, ed. of Wen yin lou yil ti ts'un Su), states that the 
grapes of southern Yun-nan are excellent, but that they cannot be dried or sent to dis- 
tant places. 



THE GRAPE-VINE 229 

In Han-Sou yellow and bright white grapes were styled Zu-tse & -3P 
("beads, pearls"); another kind, styled " rock-crystal" (swi-tsin), ex- 
celled in sweetness; those of purple and agate color ripened at a little 
later date. 1 

To Turkistan a special variety is attributed under the name so-so 
S IB grape, as large as wu-wei-tse 3t !$c ? ("five flavors," Schizandra 
chinensis) and without kernels amp;amp; $%. A lengthy dissertation on this 
fruit is inserted in the Pen ts'ao kan mu si i. 2 The essential points are 
the following. It is produced in Turf an and traded to Peking; in appear- 
ance it is like a pepper-corn, and represents a distinct variety of grape. 
Its color is purple. According to the Wu tsa tsu 3t J| fi., written in 
1610, when eaten by infants, it is capable of neutralizing the poison of 
small-pox. The name so-so is not the reproduction of a foreign word, 
but simply means "small." This is expressly stated in the Pen kin fun 
yuan ^ f ^ JM, which says that the so-so grapes resemble ordinary 
grapes, but are smaller and finer, and hence are so called (IfO Hi %$ 
C ). The Pi Pen ^ H of Yu-wen Tin =? annotates, however, 
that so-so is an error for sa-so ISI, without giving reasons for this 
opinion. Sa-so was the name of a palace of the Han emperors, and this 
substitution is surely fantastic. Whether so-so really is a vine-grape 
seems doubtful. It is said that so-so are planted everywhere in China 
to be dried and marketed, being called in Kian-nan/aw p*u-?ao ("foreign 
grape"). 8 

The Emperor K'an-hi (1662-1722), who knew very well that grapes 
had come to China from the west, tells that he caused three new varie- 
ties to be introduced into his country from Hami and adjoining terri- 
tories, one red or greenish, and long like mare-nipples; one not very 
large, but of agreeable taste and aroma; and another not larger than a 
pea, the most delicate, aromatic, and sweetest kind. These three varie- 
ties of grape degenerate in the southern provinces, where they lose 
their aroma. They persist fairly well in the north, provided they are 
planted in a dry and stony soil. "I would procure for my subjects," 
the Emperor concludes, "a novel kind of fruit or grain, rather than 
build a hundred porcelain kilns." 4 

Turkistan is well known to the Chinese as producing many varieties 

1 Man lian lu^^^, by WujTse-mu ^ g $C of the Sung (Ch. 18, p. 5 b; 
ed. of Ci pu tsu lai ts'un $u). 

2 Ch. 7, p. 69. This valuable supplement to the Pen ts'ao kan mu was first 
published in 1650 (reprinted 1765 and appended to several modern editions of the 
Pen ts*ao) by Cao Hio-min J ^ |fc (hao Su-hien JJg ff ) of Han-Sou. 

3 Mun ts'uan tsa yen H JSft $| H , cited in T'u $u tsi e'en, XX, Ch. 130. 

4 M&noires concernant les Chinois, Vol. IV, 1779, pp. 471-472. 



130 SlNO-lRANICA 

of grape. According to the Hui k'ian li S ^ ("Records of Turkis- 
tan"), written in 1772 by the two Manchu officers Fusamb6 and Surde, 
"there are purple, white, blue, and black varieties; further, round and 
long, large and small, sour and sweet ones. There is a green and seed- 
less variety, comparable to a soy-bean, but somewhat larger, and of 
very sweet and agreeable flavor [then the so-so is mentioned]. Another 
kind is black and more than an inch long; another is white and large. 
All varieties ripen in the seventh or eighth month, when they are 
dried and can be transported to distant places." According to the 
Wu tsa tsu, previously quoted, Turkistan has a seedless variety of 
grape, called tu yen 31 US p'u-t'ao ("hare-eye grape"). 

A. v. LE Cog 1 mentions under the name sozuq saim a cylindrical, 
whitish-yellow grape, the best from Toyoq and Bulayiq, red ones of 
the same shape from Manas and ShichO. Sir AUREL STEIN* says that 
throughout Chinese Turkistan the vines are trained along low fences, 
ranged in parallel rows, and that the dried grapes and currants of 
Ujat find their way as far as the markets of Aksu, Kashgar, and Turfan. 

Every one who has resided in Peking knows that it is possible to 
obtain there during the summer seemingly fresh grapes, preserved from 
the crop of the previous autumn, and that the Chinese have a method of 
preserving them. The late F. H. KiNG, 3 whose studies of the agriculture 
of China belong to the very best we have, observed regarding this 
point, "These old people have acquired the skill and practice of storing 
and preserving such perishable fruits as pears and grapes so as to 
enable them to keep them on the market almost continuously. Pears 
were very common in the latter part of June, and Consul-General 
Williams informed me that grapes are regularly carried into July. In 
talking with my interpreter as to the methods employed, I could only 
learn that the growers depend simply upon dry earth cellars which can 
be maintained at a very uniform temperature, the separate fruits being 
wrapped in paper. No foreigner with whom we talked knew their 
methods." This method is described in the TV* min yao Jfw, an ancient 
work on husbandry, probably from the beginning of the sixth century, 4 
although teeming with interpolations. A large pit is dug in a room of 
the farmhouse for storing the grapes, and holes are bored in the walls 
near the surface of the ground and stuffed with branches. Some of 
these holes are filled with mud to secure proper support for the room. 

1 Sprichworter und Lieder aus Turfan, p. 92. 

2 Sand-Buried Ruins of Khotan, p. 228. 

Farmers of Forty Centuries, p. 343 (Madison, Wis., 1911). 
1 See BRETSCHNEIDER, Bot. Sin., pt. I, p. 77; HIRTH, Toung Pao, 1895, p. 436; 
PELLIOT, Bulletin de I'Ecolefrancaise, Vol. IX, p. 434. 



THE GRAPE-VINE 231 

The pit in which the grapes are stored is covered with loam, and thus 
an even temperature is secured throughout the winter. 1 

The Jesuit missionaries of the eighteenth century praise the raisins 
of Hoai-lai-hien 2 on account of their size: "Nous parlons d'aprds le 
te*moignage de nos yeux: les grains de ces grappes de raisins sont gros 
comme des prunes damas- violet, et la grappe longue et grande a propor- 
tion. Le climat peut y faire; mais si les livres disent vrai, cela vient 
originairement de ce qu'on a ente* des vignes sur des jujubiers; et 
l^paisseur de la peau de ces raisins nous le ferait croire." 3 

Raisins are first mentioned as being abundant in Yun-nan in the 
Yiin-nan hi* (" Memoirs regarding Yun-nan"), a work written in the 
beginning of the ninth century. Li Si-Sen remarks that raisins are made 
by the people of the West as well as in T'ai-yiian and P'ifi-yan in San-si 
Province, whence they are traded to all parts of China. Kami in 
Turkistan sends large quantities of raisins to Peking. 5 In certain parts 
of northern China the Turkish word kilmil for a small kind of raisin 
is known. It is obtained from a green, seedless variety, said to originate 
from Bokhara, whence it was long ago transplanted to Yarkand. 
After the subjugation of Turkistan under K'ien-lun, it was brought to 
Jehol, and is still cultivated there. 6 

Although the Chinese eagerly seized the grape at the first oppor- 
tunity offered to them, they were slow in accepting the Iranian custom 
of making and drinking wine. 7 The Arabic merchant Soleiman (or 
whoever may be responsible for this account), writing in A.D. 851, 
reports that "the wine taken by the Chinese is made from rice; they 
do not make wine from grapes, nor is it brought to them from abroad; 

1 A similar contrivance for the storage of oranges is described in the Me"moires 
concernant les Chinois, Vol. IV, p. 489. 

a I presume that Hwai (or Hwo)-lu hien in the prefecture of ten-tin, Ci-li 
Province, is meant. 

* Me"moires concernant les Chinois, Vol. Ill, 1778, p. 498. 
4 Tai p'in yu Ian, Ch. 972, p. 3. 

6 An article on Kami raisins is inserted in the Me"moires concernant les Chinois 
(Vol. V, 1780, pp. 481-486). The introduction to this article is rather strange, an 
effort being made to prove that grapes have been known in China since times of 
earliest antiquity; this is due to a confusion of the wild and the cultivated vine. 
In Vol. II, p. 423, of the same collection, it is correctly stated that vine and wine be- 
came known under the reign of the Emperor Wu. 

6 Cf . O. FRANKE, Beschreibung des Jehol-Gebietes, p. 76. 

7 The statement that Can K'ien taught his countrymen the art of making wine, 
as asserted by GILES (Biographical Dictionary, p. 12) and L. WIEGER (Textes 
historiques, p. 499), is erroneous. There is nothing to this effect in the $i ki or in 
the Han Annals. 



232 SlNO-lRANICA 

they do not know it, accordingly, and make no use of it." 1 This doubt- 
less was correct for southern China, where the information of the 
Arabic navigators was gathered. The grape, however, is chiefly to be 
found in northern China, 2 and at the time of Soleiman the manu- 
facture of grape-wine was known in the north. The principal document 
bearing on this subject is extant in the history of the T'ang dynasty. 

In A.D. 647 a peculiar variety of grapes, styled ma Zu p*u t'ao 
?L $6 (" mare-nipple grapes") were sent to the Emperor T'ai Tsun 
:& ^ by the (Turkish) country of the Yabgu MM. It was a bunch 
of grapes two feet long, of purple color. 3 On the same occasion it is 
stated, "Wine is used in the Western Countries, and under the 
former dynasties it was sometimes sent as tribute, but only after 
the destruction of Kao-S'aii iS H (Turf an), when 'mare-nipple grapes' 
cultivated in orchards were received, also the method of making wine 
was simultaneously introduced into China (A.D. 640). T'ai Tsun 
experienced both its injurious and beneficial effects. Grape-wine, when 
ready, shines in all colors, is fragrant, very fiery, and tastes like the 
finest oil. The Emperor bestowed it on his officials, and then for the 
first time they had a taste of it in the capital." 4 

These former tributes of wine are alluded to in a verse of the poet 
Li Po of the eighth century, "The Hu people annually offered grape- 
wine." 5 Si Wan Mu, according to the Han Wu ti nei Iwan of the 
third century or later, is said to have presented grape-wine to the Han 
Emperor Wu, which certainly is an unhistorical and retrospective 
tradition. 

A certain Can Hun-mao 3Ji $k $, a native of Tun-hwan in Kan-su, 
is said to have devoted to grape-wine a poem of distinct quality. 6 
The locality Tun-hwan is of significance, for it was situated on the 

1 M. REINAUD, Relation des voyages faits par les Arabes et les Persans dans 
1'Inde et a la Chine, Vol. I, p. 23. 

2 In the south, I am under the impression it is rather isolated. It occurs, for 
instance, in San-se ou Jb ^ ^H m the prefecture of T'ai-p'in, Kwan-si Province, 
in three varieties, green, purple, and crystal, together with an uneatable wild 
grape (San se lou i, Ch. 14, p. 8, ed. published in 1835). "Grapes in the neighbor- 
hood of Canton are often unsuccessful, the alternations of dry heat and rain being 
too much in excess, while occasional typhoons tear the vines to pieces" (J. F. DAVIS, 
China, Vol. II, p. 305). They occur in places of Fu-kien and in the Chusan Archi- 
pelago (cf. Tu $u tsi t'en, VI, Ch. 1041). 

8 Tan hui yao, Ch. 200, p. 14; also Fun Si wen kien ki %j j fig JL IS, Ch. 7, 
p. I b (ed. of Kifu ts'un $u), by Fun Yen f % of the T'ang. 
4 Ibid., p. 15. 
6 Pen ts'ao yen t, Ch. 18, p. I. 

6 This is quoted from the Ts'ien lian lu "jtj ^ ffc, a work of the Tsin dynasty, 
in the Si leu kwo I'un ts'iu (T'ai p'in yu Ian, Ch. 972, p. I b). 



THE GRAPE-VINE 233 

road to Turkistan, and was the centre from which Iranian ideas radiated 
into China. 

The curious point is that the Chinese, while they received the grape 
in the era of the Han from an Iranian nation, and observed the habit 
of wine-drinking among Iranians at large, acquired the art of wine- 
making as late as the T'ang from a Turkish tribe of Turkistan. The 
Turks of the Han period knew nothing of grapes or wine, quite natu- 
rally, as they were then restricted to what is now Mongolia, where soil 
and climatic conditions exclude this plant. Vine-growing, as a matter 
of course, is compatible solely with a sedentary mode of life; and only 
after settling in Turkistan, where they usurped the heritage of their 
Iranian predecessors, 1 did the Turks become acquainted with grape 
and wine as a gift of Iranians. The Turkish word for the grape, Uigur 
ozurn (other dialects uzum) , proves nothing along the line of historical 
facts, as speculated by VAMBERY. 2 It is even doubtful whether the word 
in question originally had the meaning " grape"; on the contrary, it 
merely seems to have signified any berry, as it still refers to the berries 
and seeds of various plants. The Turks were simply epigones and 
usurpers, and added nothing new to the business of vine-culture. 

In accordance with the introduction of the manufacture of grape- 
wine into China, we find this product duly noted in the Pen ts*ao of 
the T'ang, 3 published about the middle of the seventh century; further, 
in the Si liao pen ts'ao by Mori Sen j I5fe (second half of the seventh 
century), and in the Pen ts'ao $i i by C'en Ts'an-k'i Eft IK !, who wrote 
in the K'ai-yuan period (713-741). The T'an pen ts*ao also refers to 
the manufacture of vinegar from grapes. 4 The Pen ts*ao yen i, pub- 
lished in 1116, likewise enumerates grape- wine among the numerous 
brands of alcoholic beverages. 

The Lian se kun tse ki by Can Yue (6 6 7-73 o) 5 contains an anecdote 
to the effect that Kao-S'an offered to the Court frozen wine made from 
dried raisins, on which Mr. Kie made this comment: "The taste of 
grapes with thin shells is excellent, while grapes with thick shells are 
bitter of taste. They are congealed in the Valley of Eight Winds 
(Pa fun ku A R ^). This wine does not spoil in the course of years." 6 

1 This was an accomplished fact by the end of the fourth century A.D. 

2 Primitive Cultur des turko-tatarischen Volkes, p. 218. 

3 Cen lei pen ts'ao, Ch. 23, p. 7. 

4 Ibid., Ch. 26, p. i b. 

5 See The Diamond, this volume, p. 6. 

6 Pen ts*ao kan mu, Ch. 25, p. 14 b. A different version of this story is quoted 
in the Tai p'in yii Ian (Ch. 845, p. 6 b). 



234 SlNO-lRANICA 

A recipe for making grape-wine is contained in the Pei San tsiu kin 
4fc Ul ?B K, 1 a work on the different kinds of wine, written early in the 
twelfth century by Cu Yi-cufi 3c Ji *{*, known as Ta-yin Wen ; IS H. 
Sour rice is placed in an earthen vessel and steamed. Five ounces of 
apricot-kernels (after removing the shells) and two catties of grapes 
(after being washed and dried, and seeds and shells removed) are put 
together in a bowl of thin clay ($a p*en ffi rSi), 2 pounded, and strained. 
Three pecks of a cooked broth are poured over the rice, which is placed 
on a table, leaven being added to it. This mass, I suppose, is used to 
cause the grape-juice to ferment, but the description is too abrupt and 
by no means clear. So much seems certain that the question is of a 
rather crude process of fermentation, but not of distillation (see below). 

Sii T'in ^ 8, who lived under the Emperor Li Tsufi (1224-63) of 
the Southern Sung, went as ambassador to the Court of the Mongol 
Emperor Ogotai (1229-45). His memoranda, which represent the 
earliest account we possess of Mongol customs and manners, were 
edited by P'eii Ta-ya ^ ^C 51 of the Sung under the title Hei Ta H lio 
& H ^ amp;amp; ("Outline of the Affairs of the Black Tatars"), and pub- 
lished in 1908 by Li Wen-t'ien and Hu Se in the Wen yin lou yii ti ts'un 
$u* Su T'in informs us that grape-wine put in glass bottles and sent 
as tribute from Mohammedan countries figured at the headquarters 
of the Mongol Khan; one bottle contained about ten small cups, and 
the color of the beverage resembled the juice of the Diospyros kaki 
[known in this country as Japanese persimmons] of southern China. 
It was accordingly a kind of claret. The Chinese envoy was told that 
excessive indulgence in it might result in intoxication. 

1 Ch. c, p. 19 b (ed. of Ci pu tsu ai ts'uA Su}. The work is noted by WYLIE 
(Notes on Chinese Literature, p. 150). 

1 Literally, "sand-pot." This is a kind of thin pottery (colloquially called Sa 
kwo ffi |&) peculiar to China, and turned out at Hwai-lu (Ci-li), P'in-tin &>u and 
Lu-nan (San-si), and Yao-c"ou (Sen-si). Made of clay and sand with an admixture 
of coal-dust, so that its appearance presents a glossy black, it is extremely light 
and fragile; but, on account of their thin walls, water may be heated in these pots 
with a very small quantity of fuel. They are a money and time saving device, and 
hence in great demand among the poor, who depend upon straw and dried grass for 
their kitchen fire. With careful handling, such pots and pans may endure a long 
time. The proverb runs, "The sand-pot will last a generation if you do not hit it"; 
and there is another popular saying, "You may pound garlic in a sand-pan, but you 
can do so but once" (A. H. SMITH, Proverbs and Common Sayings from the Chinese, 
p. 204). Specimens of this ware from Yao-Sou may be seen in the Field Museum, 
others from Hwai-lu are in the American Museum of New York (likewise collected 
by the writer). The above text of the Sung period is the first thus ,far found by me 
which contains an allusion to this pottery. 

1 This important work has not yet attracted the attention of our science. I hope 
to be able to publish a complete translation of it in the future. 



THE GRAPE-VINE 235 

In his interesting notice "Le Nom turc du vin dans Odoric de 
Pordenone," 1 P. PELLIOT has called attention to the word bor as a 
Turkish designation of grape-wine, adding also that this word occurs 
in a Mongol letter found in Turfan and dated I398. 2 I can furnish 
additional proof for the fact that bor is an old Mongol word in the 
sense of wine, although, of course, it may have been borrowed from 
Turkish. In the Mongol version of the epic romance of Geser or Gesar 
Khan we find an enumeration of eight names of liquor, all supposed 
to be magically distilled from araki ("arrack, brandy "). These are: 
aradsa (araja), xoradsa or xuradsa, Siradsa, boradsa, takpa, tikpa, 
marba, mirba.* These terms have never been studied, and, with the 
exception of the first and third, are not even listed in Kovalevski's and 
Golstuntki's Mongol Dictionaries. The four last words are characterized 
as Tibetan by the Tibetan suffix pa or ba. Marwa (corresponding in 
meaning to Tibetan Fan) is well known as a word generally used 
throughout Sikkim and other Himalayan regions for an alcoholic 
beverage. 4 As to tikpa, it seems to be formed after the model of Tibetan 
tig-Pan, the liquor for settling (tig) the marriage-affair, presented by the 
future bridegroom to the parents of his intended. 5 

The terms aradsa, xoradsa or xuradsa, Siradsa, and boradsa, are all 
provided with the same ending. The first is given by KOVALEVSKI* 
with the meaning "very strong koumiss, spirit of wine." A parallel is 
offered by Manchu in arfan ("a liquor prepared from milk"), while 
Manchu arjan denotes any alcoholic drink. The term xoradsa or xuradsa 
may be derived from Mongol xuru-t (-t being suffix of the plural), 
corresponding to Manchu kuru, which designates "a kind of cheese 
made from fermented mare's milk, or cheese prepared from cow's or 
mare's milk with the addition of sugar and sometimes pressed into 
forms." The word siradsa has been adopted by Schmidt and Kovalevski 
in their respective dictionaries as "wine distilled for the fourth time" 
or "esprit de vin quadruple;" but these explanations are simply based 
on the above passage of Geser, in which one drink is supposed to be 

1 T*oung Pao, 1914, pp. 448-453. 

* Ramstedt's tentative rendering of this word by "beaver" is a double error: 
first, the beaver does not occur in Mongolia and is unknown to the Mongols, its 
easternmost boundary is formed by the Yenisei; second, bor as an animal-name 
means "an otter cub," and otter and beaver are entirely distinct creatures. 

8 Text, ed. I. J. SCHMIDT, p. 65; translation, p. 99. Schmidt transcribes arasa, 
chorasa, etc., but the palatal sibilant is preferable. 

4 Cf. H. H. RISLEY, Gazetteer of Sikkim, p. 75, where also the preparation is 
described. 

1 JXSCHKE, Tibetan Dictionary, p. 364. 
e Dictionnaire mongol, p. 143. 



236 SlNO-lRANICA 

distilled from the other. This process, of course, is purely fantastic, 
and described as a magical feat; there is no reality underlying it. 

The word boradsa, in my opinion, is derived from the Turkish word 
bor discussed by Pelliot; there is no Mongol word from which it could 
be explained. In this connection, the early Chinese account given 
above of foreign grape-wine among the Mongols gains a renewed 
significance. Naturally it was a rare article in Mongolia, and for this 
reason we hear but little about it. Likewise in Tibet grape-wine is 
scarcely used, being restricted to religious offerings in the temples. 1 

The text of the Geser Romance referred to is also important from 
another point of view. It contains the loan-word ariki, from Arabic 
'araq, which appears in eastern Asia as late as the Mongol epoch 
(below, p. 237). Consequently our work has experienced the influence 
of this period, which is visible also in other instances. 2 The foundation 
of the present recension, first printed at Peking in 1716, is indeed trace- 
able to the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; many legends and 
motives, of course, are of a much older date. 

MARCO POLO relates in regard to T'ai-yuan fu, called by him Taianfu, 
the capital of San-si Province, "There grow here many excellent vines, 
supplying a great plenty of wine; and in all Cathay this is the only place 
where wine is produced. It is carried hence all over the country." 3 
Marco Polo is upheld by contemporary Chinese writers. Grape-wine 
is mentioned in the Statutes of the Yuan Dynasty. 4 The Yin $an cen 
yao ffc Si IE S, written in 1331 (in 3 chapters) by Ho Se-hwi ^P $r Sf, 
contains this account: 5 "There are numerous brands of wine: that 
coming from QarS-Khoja (Ha-la-hwo && SS ^) 6 is very strong, that 
coming from Tibet ranks next. Also the wines from P'in-yan and T'ai- 

1 Cf. T'oung Pao, 1914, p. 412. 

2 Cf. ibid., 1908, p. 436. 

8 YULE and CORDIER, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, Vol. II, p. 13. KLAPROTH 
(cf. Yule's notes, ibid., p. 16) was quite right in saying that the wine of that locality 
was celebrated in the days of the T'ang dynasty, and used to be sent in tribute to the 
emperors. Under the Mongols the use of this wine spread greatly. The founder of 
the Ming accepted the offering of wine from T'ai-yuan in 1373, but prohibited its 
being presented again. This fact is contained in the Ming Annals (cf. L. WIEGER, 
Textes historiques, p. 2011). 

4 Yuan lien Ian % Jft- $ Ch. 22, p. 65 (ed. 1908). 

6 Pen ts'ao kan mu, Ch. 25, p. 14 b. Regarding that work, cf. the Imperial 
Catalogue, Ch. 116, p. 27 b. 

6 Regarding this name and its history see PELLIOT, Journal asiatique, 1912, I, 
p. 582. Qara-Khoja was celebrated for its abundance of grapes (BRETSCHNEIDER, 
Mediaeval Researches, Vol. I, p. 65). J. DUDGEON (The Beverages of the Chinese, 
p. 27), misreading the name Ha-so-hwo, took it for the designation of a sort of wine. 
Stuart (Chinese Materia Medica, p. 459) mistakes it for a transliteration of "hoi- 



THE GRAPE-VINE 237 

yuan (in San-si) take the second rank. According to some statements, 
grapes, when stored for a long time, will develop into wine through a 
natural process. This wine is fragrant, sweet, and exceedingly strong: 
this is the genuine grape-wine." 1 The Ts*ao mu tse & /fc -J% written 
in 1378 by Ye Tse-k'i M -f* iff, contains the following information: 
" Under the Yuan dynasty grape- wine was manufactured in Ki-niii 
IK ^ and other circuits ! of San-si Province. In the eighth month 
they went to the T'ai-han Mountain :fc f? Ul 2 in order to test the 
genuine and adulterated brands: the genuine kind when water is 
poured on it, will float; the adulterated sort, when thus treated, will 
freeze. 3 In wine which has long been stored, there is a certain portion 
which even in extreme cold will never freeze, while all the remainder is 
frozen: this is the spirit and fluid secretion of wine. 4 If this is drunk, 
the essence will penetrate into a man's arm-pits B8? , and he will die. 
Wine kept for two or three years develops great poison." 

The first author who offers a coherent notice and intelligent discus- 
sion of the subject of grape-wine is Li Si-c"en at the end of the sixteenth 
century. 5 He is well acquainted with the fact that this kind of wine was 
anciently made only in the Western Countries, and that the method of 
manufacturing it was but introduced under the T'ang after the sub- 
jugation of Kao-6'aii. He discriminates between two types of grape- 
wine, the fermented 18 $ 3, of excellent taste, made from grape- 
juice with the addition of leaven in the same fashion as the ordinary 
native rice-wine (or, if no juice is available, dried raisins may be used), 
and the distilled ^ ffl. In the latter method "ten catties of grapes are 
taken with an equal quantity of great leaven (distillers' grains) and 
subjected to a process of fermentation. The whole is then placed in an 
earthen kettle and steamed. The drops are received in a vessel, and 
this liquid is of red color, and very pleasing." There is one question, 
however, left open by Li Si-2en. In a preceding notice on distillation 
JH JS he states that this is not an ancient method, but was practised 
only from the Yuan period; he then describes it in its application to rice- 
lands," or maybe "alcohol." The latter word has never penetrated into China in 
any form. Chinese a-la-ki does not represent the word "alcohol," as conceived by 
some authors, for instance, J. MACGOWAN (Journal China Brunch Roy. As. Soc., 
Vol. VII, 1873, p. 237); see the following note. 

1 This work is also the first that contains the word a-la-ki fnf jfjlj ^ , from 
Arabic 'araq (see T'oung Pao, 1916, p. 483). 

2 A range of mountains separating San-si from Ci-li and Ho-nan. 

3 This is probably a fantasy. We can make nothing of it, as it is not stated how 
the adulterated wine was made. 

4 This possibly is the earliest Chinese allusion to alcohol. 
6 Pen ts'ao kan mu, Ch. 25, p. 14 b. 



38 SlNO-lRANICA 

wine in the same manner as for grape-wine. Certain it is that distillation 
is a Western invention, and was unknown to the ancient Chinese. 1 
Li Si-Sen fails to inform us as to the time when the distillation of grape- 
wine came into existence. If this process had become known in China 
under the T'ang in connection with grape-wine, it would be strange if 
the Chinese did not then apply it to their native spirits, but should have 
waited for another foreign impulse until the Mongol period. On the 
other hand, if the method due to the Uigur under the T'ang merely 
applied to fermented grape-wine, we may justly wonder that the Chinese 
had to learn such a simple affair from the Uigur, while centuries earlier 
they must have had occasion to observe this process among many 
Iranian peoples. It would therefore be of great interest to seize upon 
a document that would tell us more in detail what this method of 
manufacture was, to which the T'ang history obviously attaches so 
great importance. It is not very likely that distillation was involved; 
for it is now generally conceded that the Arabs possessed no knowledge 
of alcohol, and that distillation is not mentioned in any relevant litera- 
ture of the Arabs and Persians from the tenth to the thirteenth cen- 
tury. 2 The statement of Li Si-Sen, that distillation was first practised 
under the Mongols, is historically logical and in keeping with our 
present knowledge of the subject. It is hence reasonable to hold (at 
least for the present) also that distilled grape-wine was not made 
earlier in China than in the epoch of the Yuan. Mori Sen of the T'ang 
says advisedly that grapes can be fermented into wine, and the recipe 
of the Sung does not allude to distillation. 

In the eighteenth century European wine also reached China. A 
chest of grape-wine figures among the presents made to the Emperor 
K'aii-hi on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday in 1715 by the Jesuits 
Bernard Kilian Stumpf, Joseph Suarez, Joachim Bouvet, and Dornini- 
cus Parrenin. 3 

P. OsBECK, 4 the pupil of Linne*, has the following notice on the 
importation of European wine into China: "The Chinese wine, which 
our East India traders call Mandarin wine, is squeezed out of a fruit 
which is here called Pausio, 6 and reckoned the same with our grapes. 

1 Cf. BRETSCHNEIDER, Bot. Sin., pt. II, p. 155; J. DUDGEON, The Beverages of 
the Chinese, pp. 19-20; EDKINS, China Review, Vol. VI, p. 211. The process of 
distillation is described by H. B. GRUPPY, Samshu-Brewing in North China (Journal 
China Branch Roy. As. Soc., Vol. XVIII, 1884, pp. 163-164). 

a E. O. v. LIPPMANN, Abhandlungen, Vol. II, pp. 206-209; cf. also my remarks 
in American Anthropologist, 1917, p. 75. 

1 Cf. Wan Sou Sen tien j| H J&, Ch. 56, p. 12. 

4 A Voyage to China and the East Indies, Vol. I, p. 315 (London, 1771). 

8 Apparently a bad or misprinted reproduction of p'u-t'ao. 



THE GRAPE-VINE 339 

This wine was so disagreeable to us, that none of us would drink it. 
The East India ships never fail taking wine to China, where they often 
sell it to considerable advantage. The Xeres (sherry) wine, for which 
at Cadiz we paid thirteen piastres an anchor, we sold here at thirty- 
three piastres an anchor. But in this case you stand a chance of having 
your tons split by the heat during the voyage. I have since been told, 
that in 1754, the price of wine was so much lowered at Canton, that 
our people could with difficulty reimburse themselves. The Spaniards 
send wines to Manilla and Macao, whence the Chinese fetch a con- 
siderable quantity, especially for the court of Peking. The wine of 
Xeres is more agreeable here than any other sort, on account of its 
strength, and because it is not liable to change by heat. The Chinese 
are very temperate in regard to wine, and many dare not empty a single 
glass, at least not at once. Some, however, have learned from foreigners 
to exceed the limits of temperance, especially when they drink with 
them at free cost." 

Grape-wine is attributed by the Chinese to the Arabs. 1 The 
Arabs cultivated the vine and made wine in the pre-Islamic epoch. 
Good information on this subject is given by G. JACOB.* 

Theophrastus 3 states that in India only the mountain-country has 
the vine and the olive. Apparently he hints at a wild vine, as does also 
Strabo, 4 who says after Aristobulus that in the country of Musicanus 
(Sindh) there grows spontaneously grain resembling wheat, and a vine 
producing wine, whereas other authors affirm that there is no wine in 
India. Again, he states 8 that on the mountain Meron near the city 
Nysa, founded by Bacchus, there grows a vine which does not ripen 
its fruit; for, in consequence of excessive rains, the grapes drop before 
arriving at maturity. They say also that the Sydracae or Oxydracae 
are descendants of Bacchus, because the vine grows in their country. 
The element -dracae (drakai) is probably connected with Sanskrit 
drdk$d ("grape")- These data of the ancients are vague, and do not 
prove at all that the grape- vine has been cultivated in India from time 
immemorial, as inferred by JORET.* Geographically they only refer to 
the regions bordering on Iran. The ancient Chinese knew only of grapes 
in Kashmir (above, p. 222). The Wei $u 7 states that grapes were ex- 

1 HIRTH, Chao Ju-kua, pp. 115, 121. 

2 Altarabisches Beduinenleben, 26. ed., pp. 96-109. 

3 Hist, plant., IV. iv, u. 

4 XV, 22. 

XV. 1,8. 

Plantes dans 1'antiquitS, Vol. II, p. 280. 

7 Ch. 102, p. 8. 



240 SlNO-lRANICA 

ported from Pa-lai JJt IS (*Bwat-lai) in southern India. Huan Tsafi 1 
enumerates grapes together with pears, crab-apples, peaches, and 
apricots, 2 as the fruits which, from Kashmir on, are planted here and 
there in India. The grape, accordingly, was by no means common in 
India in his time (seventh century). 

The grape is not mentioned in Vedic literature, and Sanskrit drdksd 
I regard with SPIEGEL 3 as a loan-word. Viticulture never was extensive 
or of any importance in Indian agriculture. Prior to the Moham- 
medan conquest, we have little precise knowledge of the cultivation of 
the vine, which was much fostered by Akbar. In modern times it is 
only in Kashmir that it has been received with some measure of 
success. 

Huan Tsaii 4 states that there are several brands of alcoholic and 
non-alcoholic beverages in India, differing according to the castes. 
The Ksatriya indulge in grape and sugar-cane wine. The Vaigya take 
rich wines fermented with yeast. The Buddhists and Brahmans partake 
of a syrup of grapes or sugar-cane, which does not share the nature 
of any wine. 5 In Jataka No. 183, grape-juice (muddikapanam) of in- 
toxicating properties is mentioned. 

Huan Yin 6 gives three Sanskrit words for various kinds of wine: 

(i) ^ It su-loj *su5-la, Sanskrit sura, explained as rice- wine 



1 Ta Tan si yu ki, Ch. 2, p. 8. 

2 Not almond-tree, as erroneously translated by JULIEN (Me"moires, Vol. I, 
p. 92). Regarding peach and apricot, see below, p. 539. 

3 Arische Periode, p. 41. 

4 Ta Tan si yu ki, Ch. 2, p. 8 b. 

5 S. JULIEN (Me"moires, Vol. I, p. 93) translates wrongly, "qui different tout a 
fait du vin distilleV' Distilled wine was then unknown both to the Chinese and in 
India, and the term is not in the text. "Distillation of wines" is surely not spoken 
of in the Cukranlti, as conceived by B. K. SARKAR (The Sukraniti, p. 157; and Hindu 
Sociology, p. 1 66). 

6 Yi ts'ie kin yin i, Ch. 24, p. 8 b. 

7 This definition is of some importance, for in BOEHTLINGK'S Sanskrit Dictionary 
the word is explained as meaning "a kind of beer in ancient times, subsequently, 
however, in most cases brandy," which is certainly wrong. Thus also O. SCHRADER'S 
speculation (Sprachvergleichung, Vol. II, p. 256), connecting Finno-Ugrian sara, 
sur, etc. ("beer") with this word, necessarily falls to the ground. MACDONELL and 
KEITH (Vedic Index, Vol. II, p. 458) admit that "the exact nature of surd is not 
certain, it may have been a strong spirit prepared from fermented grains and plants, 
as Eggeling holds, or, as Whitney thought, a kind of beer or ale." It follows also 
from Jataka No. 512 that surd was prepared from rice. In Cosmas' Christian 
Topography (p. 362, ed. of Hakluyt Society) we have o7xoo-o6pa ("coconut- 
wine"); here sura means "wine," while the first element may be connected with 
Arabic ranej or ranj ("coco-nut"). 



THE GRAPE-VINE 241 

(2) If 3B mi-li-ye, *mei-li(ri)-ya, answering to Sanskrit maireya, 
explained as a wine mixed from roots, stems, flowers, and leaves. 1 

(3) ifc P mo-fa, *mwaS-do, Sanskrit madhu, explained as "grape- 
wine" (p'u-t'ao tsiu). The latter word, as is well known, is connected 
with Avestan mada (Middle Persian mai, New Persian mei), Greek 
jueflv, Latin temetum. Knowledge of grape-wine was conveyed to India 
from the West, as we see from the Periplus and Tamil poems alluding 
to the importation of Yavana (Greek) wines. 2 In the Raghuvamga 
(iv, 65), madhu doubtless refers to grape- wine; for King Raghu van- 
quished the Yavana, and his soldiers relieve their fatigue by enjoying 
madhu in the vine regions of the Yavana country. 

According to W. AiNSLiE, 3 the French at Pondicherry, in spite of the 
great heat of the Carnatic, are particularly successful in cultivating 
grapes; but no wine is made in India, nor is the fruit dried into raisins 
as in Europe and Persia. The Arabians and Persians, particularly the 
latter, though they are forbidden wine by the Koran, bestow much 
pains on the cultivation of the grape, and suppose that the different 
kinds possess distinguishing medicinal qualities. Wine is brought to 
India from Persia, where, according to TA VERNIER (1605-89), three 
sorts are made: that of Yezd, being very delicate; the Ispahan produce, 
being not so good; and the Shiraz, being the best, rich, sweet, and 
generous, and being obtained from the small grapes called ki$mi$, 
which are sent for sale to Hindustan when dried into raisins. 4 There 
are two brands of Shiraz wine, a red and a white, both of which are 
excellent, and find a ready market in India. Not less than four thou- 
sand tuns of Shiraz wine is said to be annually sent from Persia to 
different parts of the world. 5 The greatest quantity is produced in the 
district of Korbal, near the village of Bend Emir. 6 In regard to Assam, 

1 Compare above (p. 222) the , wine of the Yue-cl. According to BOEHTLINGK, 
maireya is an intoxicating drink prepared from sugar and other substances. 

2 V. A. SMITH, Early History of India, p. 444 (3d ed.). 

3 Materia Indica, Vol. I, p. 157. 

4 Compare above, p. 231. 

8 ' ' Wines too , of every clime and hue, 

Around their liquid lustre threw; 
Amber Rosolli, the bright dew 
From vineyards of the Green-Sea gushing; 
And Shiraz wine, that richly ran 
As if that jewel, large and rare, 
The ruby, for which Kublai-Khan 
Offer'd a city's wealth, was blushing 
Melted within the goblets there!" 

THOMAS MOORE, Lalla Rookh. 
6 AINSLEE, I.e., p. 473. 



242 SlNO-lRANICA 

TA VERNIER* states that there are quantities of vines and good grapes, 
but no wine, the grapes being merely dried to distil spirits from. Wild 
vine grows in upper Siam and on the Malay Peninsula, and is said to 
furnish a rather good wine. 1 

A wine-yielding plant of Central Asia is described in the Ku kin u 
ifr 4* & 3 by Ts'ui Pao S 15 of the fourth century, as follows: "The 
tsiu-pei-t'en SS W (" wine-cup creeper") has its habitat in the West- 
ern Regions (Si-yu). The creeper is as large as an arm; its leaves are 
like those of the ko 31 (Pachyrhizus thunbergianus, a wild-growing 
creeper); flowers and fruits resemble those of the wu-t'un (Sterculia 
platanifolia) , and are hard; wine can be pressed out of them. The 
fruits are as large as a finger and in taste somewhat similar to the tou-k*ou 
]a H (Alpinia globosum); their fragrance is fine, and they help to digest 
wine. In order to secure wine, the natives get beneath the creepers, 
pluck the flowers, press the wine out, eat the fruit for digestion, and 
become intoxicated. The people of those countries esteem this wine, 
but it is not sent to China. Can K'ien obtained it when he left Ta-yuan 
(Fergana). This affair is contained in the Can K'ien Fu kwan li 36 il 
ffi SB iS ('Memoirs of Can K'ien's Journey')-" 4 This account is re- 
stricted to the Ku kin lu, and is not confirmed by any other book. Li 
Si-Sen's work is the only Pen ts'ao which has adopted this text in an 
abridged form. 6 Accordingly the plant itself has never been introduced 
into China; and this fact is sufficient to discard the possibility of an 
introduction by Can K'ien. If he had done so, the plant would have 
been disseminated over China and mentioned in the various early 
Pen ts'ao; it would have been traced and identified by our botanists. 
Possibly the plant spoken of is a wild vine, possibly another genus. 
The description, though by no means clear in detail, is too specific to 
be regarded as a mystification. 

The history of the grape-vine in China has a decidedly method- 
ological value. We know exactly the date of the introduction and 

1 Travels in India, Vol. II, p. 282. 

2 DILOCK PRINZ VON SIAM, Landwirtschaft in Siam, p. 167. 

8 Ch. c, p. 2 b. The text has been adopted by the Su po wu li (Ch. 5, p. 2 b) 
and in a much abbreviated form by the Yu yan tsa tsu (Ch. 18, p. 6 b). It is not in 
the Pen ts'ao kan mu, but in the Pen ts'ao kan mu Si i (Ch. 8, p. 27). 

4 HIRTH (Journal Am. Or. Soc., Vol. XXXVII, 1917, p. 91) states that this 
work is mentioned in the catalogue of the library of the Sui dynasty, but not in the 
later dynastic catalogues. We do not know when and by whom this alleged book 
was written; it may have been an historical romance. Surely it was not produced 
by Can K'ien himself. 

6 See also T'u Su tsi t'en, XX, Ch. 112, where no other text on the subject is 
quoted. 



THE GRAPE-VINE 243 

the circumstances which accompanied this important event. We have 
likewise ascertained that the art of making grape-wine was not learned 
by the Chinese before A.D. 640. There are in China several species of 
wild vine which bear no relation to the imported cultivated species. 
Were we left without the records of the Chinese, a botanist of the 
type of Engler would correlate the cultivated with the wild forms and 
assure us that the Chinese are original and independent viticulturists. 
In fact, he has stated 1 that Vitis thunbergii, a wild vine occurring in 
Japan, Korea, and China, seems to have a share in the development of 
Japanese varieties of vine, and that Vitis filifolia of North China seems 
to have influenced Chinese and Japanese vines. Nothing of the kind 
can be inferred from Chinese records, or has ever been established by 
direct observation. The fact of the introduction of the cultivated grape 
into China is wholly ujnknown to Engler. The botanical notes appended 
by him to HEHN'S history of the grape 2 have nothing whatever to do 
with the history of the cultivated species, but refer exclusively to wild 
forms. It is not botany, but historical research, that is able to solve the 
problems connected with the history of our cultivated plants. 

Dr. T. TANAKA of the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department 
of Agriculture, Washington, has been good enough to contribute the 
following notes on the history of the grape-vine in Japan: 

"The early history of the cultivation of the grape-vine (Vitis 
vinifera) in Japan is very obscure. Most of the early Japanese medical 
and botanical works refer to budo 36 3& (Chinese p*u-t*ao) as ebi, the 
name occurring in the Kojiki (compiled in A.D. 712, first printed in 
1644) as yebikadzura* which is identified by J. MATSUMURA* as Vitis 
vinifera. It seems quite incomprehensible that the grape-vine, which 
is now found only in cultivated form, should have occurred during the 
mythological period as early as 660 B.C. The Honzd-wamyo ^ ^ 
fll & (compiled during the period 897~93P, first printed 1796) mentions 
o-ebi-kadzura as vine-grape, distinguishing it from ordinary ebi-kadzura, 
but the former is no longer in common use in distinction from the latter. 
The ebi-dzuru which should correctly be termed inu-ebi (false ebi 
plant), as suggested by Ono Ranzan, 5 is widely applied in Japan for 
31 JC (Chinese yin-yti), and is usually identified as Vitis thunbergii, 

1 Erlauterungen zu den Nutzpflanzen der gemassigten Zonen, p. 30. 

8 Kulturpflanzen, pp. 85-91. 

1 B. H. CHAMBERLAIN, Ko-ji-ki, p. xxxiv. 

4 Botanical Magazine, Tokyo, Vol. VII, 1893, p. 139, 

5 Honzd komoku keimS, ed. 1847, Ch. 29, p. 3. 



244 SlNO-lRANICA 

but is an entirely different plant, with small, deeply-lobed leaves, 
copiously villose beneath. Ebi-kadzura is mentioned again in the 
Wamyd-ruiju$d ^P & SB 3 $ (compiled during the period 923-931, 
first edited in 1617), which gives budo as the fruit of Sikwatsu or Vitis 
coignetiae 1 , as growing wild in northern Japan. 

"These three plants are apparently mixed up in early Japanese 
literature, as pointed out by Arai Kimiyosi. 2 Describing budo as a food 
plant, the Honto Sokukan ^ 19 & ISi 3 mentions that the fruit was not 
greatly appreciated in ancient times; for this reason no mention was 
made of it in the Imperial chronicles, nor has any appropriate Japanese 
term been coined to designate the vine-grape proper. 

"In the principal vine-grape district of Japan, YamanaSi-ken 
(previously called Kai Province), were found a few old records, an 
account of which is given in Viscount Y. Fukuba's excellent discourse 
on Pomology. 4 An article on the same subject was published by J. 
DAUTREMER. 6 This relates to a tradition regarding the accidental dis- 
covery by a villager, Amenomiya Kageyu (not two persons), of the vine- 
grape in 1186 (Dautremer erroneously makes it 1195) a t the mountain 
of Kamiiwasaki Jb $ $, not far from Kofu Jff. Its cultivation must 
have followed soon afterward, for in 1197 a few choice fruits were 
presented to the Sogun Yoritomo (1147-99). At the time of Takeda 
Harunobu (1521-73) a sword was presented to the Amenomiya family 
as a reward for excellent fruits which they presented to the Lord. 
Viscount Fukuba saw the original document relative to the official 
presentation of the sword, and bearing the date I549- 6 The descendants 
of this historical grape-vine are still thriving in the same locality around 
the original grove, widely recognized among horticulturists as a true 
Vitis vinifera. According to a later publication of Fukuba, 7 there is 
but one variety of it. Several introductions of Vitis vinifera took place 
in the early Meiji period (beginning 1868) from Europe and America. 

"The following species of Vitis are mentioned in Umemura's work 
Ino$okukwai-no-$okubutsu-$i ffc Jt $t* *L fil $0 t 8 as being edible: 

1 MATSUMURA, Shokubutsu Mei-i, p. 380. 

2 Toga jjC $t (completed in 1719), ed. 1906, p. 272. 
1 Ch. 4, p. 50 (ed. of 1698). 

4 Kwaju engei-ron jf^ HJ H Hj< ffe, privately published in 1892. 

6 Situation de la vigne dans 1'empire du Japon, Transactions Asiatic Society of 
Japan, Vol. XIV, 1886, pp. 176-185. 

6 Fukuba, op. cit., pp. 461-462. 

7 Kwaju saibaijenSo ^ tsj Jfc *g ^, Vol. IV, 1896, pp. 119-120. 

8 Vol. 4, 1906. 



THE GRAPE-VINE 245 

" Yama-budO (Vitis coignetiae): fruit eaten raw and used for wine; 
leaves substituted for tobacco. 

"Ebi-dzuru (V. ihunbergii): fruit eaten raw, leaves cleaned and 
cooked; worm inside the cane baked and eaten by children as remedy 
for convulsions. 

" Sankaku-dzuru (V. flexuosa): fruit eaten raw. 

"Ama-dzuru \(V. sacchariferd) : fruit eaten raw; children are very 
fond of eating the leaves, as they contain sugar." 



THE PISTACHIO 

3. Pistacia is a genus of trees or shrubs of the family Anacardiaceae, 
containing some six species, natives of Iran and western Asia, and also 
transplanted to the Mediterranean region. At least three species 
(Pistacia vera, P. terebinthus, and P. acuminatd) are natives of Persia, 
and from ancient times have occupied a prominent place in the life of the 
Iranians. Pistachio-nuts are still exported in large quantities from 
Afghanistan to India, where they form a common article of food among 
the well-to-do classes. The species found in Afghanistan and Baluchis- 
tan do not cross the Indian frontier. 1 The pistachio (Pistacia vera) in 
particular is indigenous to ancient Sogdiana and Khorasan, 2 and still 
is a tree of great importance in Russian Turkistan. 3 

When Alexander crossed the mountains into Bactriana, the road 
was bare of vegetation save a few trees of the bushy terminthus or 
terebinthus. 4 On the basis of the information furnished by Alexander's 
scientific staff, the tree is mentioned by Theophrastus 5 as growing in 
the country of the Bactrians; the nuts resembling almonds in size 
and shape, but surpassing them in taste and sweetness, wherefore the 
people of the country use them in preference to almonds. Nicandrus 
of Colophon 6 (third century B.C.), who calls the fruit /3ioT or ^LTTOLKLOV, 
a word derived from an Iranian language (see below), says that it grows 
in the valley of the Xoaspes in Susiana. Posidonius, Dioscorides, Pliny, 
and Galenus know it also in Syria. Vitellius introduced the tree into 
Italy; and Flaccus Pompeius, who served with him, introduced it at 
the same time into Spain. 7 

The youths of the Persians were taught to endure heat, cold, and 
rain; to cross torrents and to keep their armor and clothes dry; to 
pasture animals, to watch all night in the open air, and to subsist on 
wild fruit, as terebinths (Pistacia terebinthus), acorns, and wild pears. 8 

1 WATT, Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Vol. VI, p. 268. 

8 JORET, Plantes dans 1'antiquite", Vol. II, pp. 47, 76. 

* S. KORZINSKI, Vegetation of Turkistan (in Russian), pp. 20, 21. 

4 Strabo, XV. n, 10. 

5 Hist, plant., IV. iv, 7. 
Theriaka, 890. 

7 Pliny, xv, 22, 91. A. DE CANDOLLE (Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 316) 
traces Pistacia vera only to Syria, without mentioning its occurrence in Persia. 

8 Strabo, XV. in, 18. 

246 



THE PISTACHIO 247 

The Persians appeared to the ancients as terebinth-eaters, and this 
title seems to have developed into a sort of nickname: when Astyages, 
King of the Medians, seated on his throne, looked on the defeat of his 
men through the army of Cyrus, he exclaimed, "Woe, how brave are 
these terebinth-eating Persians!" 1 According to Polyaenus, 2 terebinth- 
oil was among the articles to be furnished daily for the table of the 
Persian kings. In the Bundahisn, the pistachio-nut is mentioned to- 
gether with other fruits the inside of which is fit to eat, but not the 
outside. 1 "The fruits of the country are dates, pistachios, and apples 
of Paradise, with other of the like not found in our cold climate." 4 

Twan C'en-gi U $ ^, in his Yu yan tsa tsu S il H ffl., written 
about A.D. 860 and containing a great amount of useful information 
on the plants of Persia and Fu-lin, has the following: 

"The hazel-nut (Corylus heterophylla) of the Hu (Iranians), styled 
a-yiie H B , grows in the countries of the West. 6 According to the 
statement of the barbarians, a-yiie is identical with the hazel-nuts 
of the Hu. In the first year the tree bears hazel-nuts, in the second 
year it bears a-ytie."* 

C'en Ts'aii-k'i W I8t H, who in the K'ai-yuan period (A.D. 713-741) 
wrote the Materia Medica Pen ts*ao Si i ^ ^ f& jft, states that "the 
fruits of the plant a-yue-hun H ft iS are warm and acrid of flavor, 
non-poisonous, cure catarrh of the bowels, remove cold feeling, and 
make people stout and robust, that they grow in the western countries, 
the barbarians saying that they are identical with the hazel-nut of the 
Hu SB t^ ?. During the first year the tree bears hazel-nuts, in the 
second year it bears a-yue-hun." 

Li Sun ^ #0, in his Hai yao pen ts'ao JS ^ ^ ^ (second half of the 
eighth century), states, "According to the Nan tou ki ^ $N 12 by 
Su Piao ^ l&, 7 the Nameless Tree (wu min mu ffifc ^ /fC) grows in the 
mountainous valleys of Lin-nan (Kwan-tun) . Its fruits resemble in appear- 
ance the hazel-nut, and are styled Nameless Fruits (wu min tse $fc 

1 Nicolaus of Damaskus (first century B.C.), cited by HEHN, Kulturpflanzen, 
p. 424. 

* Strategica, IV. m, 32. 

8 These fruits are walnut, almond, pomegranate, coconut, filbert, and chestnut. 
See WEST, Pahlavi Texts, Vol. I, p. 103. 

4 MARCO POLO, Yule's edition, Vol. I, p. 97. 

6 The editions of the Yu yan tsa tsu write | HJ, "in the gardens of the West"; 
but the T'u su tsi I* en (section botany, Ch. 311) and Ci wu min Si t'u k'ao, in repro- 
ducing this text, offer the reading 15 , which seems to me preferable. 

6 Yu yan tsa tsujjH ^, Ch. 10, p. 3 b (ed. of Tsin tai pi Su). 

7 This work is quoted in the TVi min yao Su, written by Kia Se-niu under the 
Hou Wei dynasty (A.D. 386-534). 



248 SlNO-lRANICA 

?). Persians amp;amp; $r IK designate them a-yile-hun fruits." 1 For the same 
period we have the testimony of the Arabic merchant Soleiman, who 
wrote in A.D. 851, to the effect that pistachios grow in China. 2 

As shown by the two forms, a-yue of the Yu yan tsa tsu and a-yue-hun 
of the Pen ts'ao $i i and Hai yao pen ts*ao, the fuller form must repre- 
sent a compound consisting of the elements a-yue and hun. In order to 
understand the transcription a-yue, consideration of the following facts 
is necessary. 

The Old-Iranian word for the walnut has not been handed down to 
us, but there is good evidence to prompt the conclusion that it must 
have been of the type *agOza or *afigOza. On the one hand, we have 
Armenian engoiz, Ossetic angoza or anguz, and Hebrew egoz; 3 on the 
other hand, we meet in Yidgha, a Hindu-Kush language, the form 
oguzo, as compared with New Persian koz and goz.* The signification 
of this word is "nut" in general, and " walnut" in particular. Further, 
there is in Sanskrit the Iranian loan-word dkhota, aksoja, or aksoda, 
which must have been borrowed at an early date, as, in the last-named 
form, the word occurs twice in the Bower Manuscript. 5 It has survived 
in Hindustani as axrdt or dkrot. The actual existence of an East- 
Iranian form with the ancient initial a- is guaranteed by the Chinese 
transcription a-yue; for a-yiie M H answers to an ancient *a-nwie5 
(nw'e5) or *a-gwie5, a-gwu5; 6 and this, in my opinion, is intended to 
represent the Iranian word for "nut" with initial a-, mentioned above; 
that is, *angwiz, afigwOz, agOz. 

Chinese hun answers to an ancient *7wun or wun. In regard 
to this Iranian word, the following information may be helpful. E. 

1 If it is correct that the transcription a-yue-hun was already contained in the 
Nan lou ki (which it is impossible to prove, as we do not possess the text of this 
work), the transcription must have been based on an original prototype of early 
Sasanian times or on an early Middle- Persian form. This, in fact, is confirmed by 
the very character of the Sino-Iranian word, which has preserved the initial a-, 
while this one became lost in New Persian. It may hence be inferred that Li Sun's 
information is correct, and that the transcription a-yue-hun may really have been 
contained in the Nan cou ki, and would accordingly be pre-T'an. 

2 M. REINAUD, Relation des voyages faits par les Arabes et les Persans dans 
1'Inde et a la Chine, Vol. I, p. 22. 

3 Whether Georgian nigozi and the local name Nlyovfa of Ptolemy (W. 
TOMASCHEK, Pamirdialekte, Sitzber. Wiener Akad., 1880, p. 790) belong here, I do 
not feel certain. Cf. HUBSCHMANN, Armenische Grammatik, p. 393. 

4 In regard to the elision of initial a in New Persian, see HUBSCHMANN, Persische 
Studien, p. 120. 

6 HOERNLE'S edition, pp. 32, 90, 121. 

6 Regarding the phonetic value of ^ , see the detailed study of PELLIOT (Bull. 
de VEcole fran$aise, Vol. V, p. 443) and the writer's Language of the Yue-chi or 
Indo-Scythians. 



THE PISTACHIO 249 

1 speaks of Terebinthus or Pistacea sylvestris in Persia thus: 
"Ea Pistaceae hortensi, quam Tfreophrastus Therebinthum Indicam 
vocat, turn magnitudine, turn totius ac partium figura persimilis est, 
nisi quod flosculos ferat fragrantiores, nuces vero praeparvas, insipidas; 
unde a descriptione botanica abstinemus. Copiosa crescit in recessibus 
montium brumalis genii, petrosis ac desertis, circa Schamachiam Mediae, 
Schirasum Persidis, in Luristano et Larensi territoriis. Mihi nullibi 
conspecta est copiosior quam in petroso monte circa Majin, pagum 
celebrem, una diaeta dissitum Sjirasd: in quo mihi duplicis varietatis 
indicarunt arborem; unam vulgariorem, quae generis sui retineat 
appellationem Diracht [diraxt, l tree '] Ben seu Wen; alteram rariorem, 
in specie Kasudaan [kasu-dan], vel, ut rustici pronunciant, Kasud&n 
dictam, quae a priori fructuum rubedine differat." ROEDIGER and PoxT 2 
have added to this ben or wen a Middle-Persian form ven ("wild pista- 
chio"). In the Persian Dictionary edited by STEINGASS (p. 200) this 
word is given as ban or wan (also banak), with the translation "Persian 
turpentine seed." 3 VULLERS* writes it ban. SCHLIMMER S transcribes 
this word beneh. He identifies the tree with Pistacia acuminata and 
observes, "C'est 1'arbre qui fournit en Perse un produit assez semblable 
a la trmentine, mais plut6t mou que liquide, vu qu'on 1'obtient par 
des d^coupures, dont le produit se rassemble durant les grandes chaleurs 
dans un creux fait en terre glaise au pied de 1'arbre, de facon a ce que la 
matiere se'cre'te'e perd une grande partie de son huile essentielle avant 
d'etre enleve'e. Le rne'me produit, obtenu a Kerman dans un outre, 
fixe a Tarbre et enleve* aussit6t plein, e*tait a peu prs aussi liquide que 
la te're'benthine de Venise. ... La Pistacia acuminata est sauvage au 
Kordesthan persan et, d'apres Buhse, aussi a Reshm, Damghan et 
Dereghum (province de Yezd) ; Haussknecht la vit aussi a Kuh Kiluye 
et dans le Luristan." 

The same word we meet also in Kurd dariben, dar-i-ben ("the tree 
ben"), and in all probability in Greek reptpwdos, older forms rkpiuvQos 
and rpe/uflos. 6 Finally WATT* gives a BaluSi word ban, wan, wana, gwa, 

1 Amoenitatura exotfcarum fasciculi V, p. 413 (Lemgoviae, 1712). 

2 Zeitschr. Kunde d. MorgenL, Vol. V, 1844, p. 64. 

3 This notion is also expressed by bandslb (cf. bindst, "turpentine"). 

4 Lexicon persico-latinum, Vol. I, p. 184. 
* Terminologie, p. 465. 

6 The Greek ending, therefore, is -0os, not -v8os, as stated by SCHRADER (in 
Hehn, Kulturpflanzen, 8th ed., p. 221); n adheres to the stem: tere-bin-Oos. 

7 Commercial Products of India, p. 902 ; and Dictionary of the Economic 
Products of India, Vol. VI, p. 271. 



250 SlNO-lRANICA 

gwaw, gwana, for Pistacia mutica (or P. terebinthus, var. mutica); this 
form comes nearest to the Chinese transcription. 

While a compound *agoz-van(vun), that is, "nut of pistachio," as 
far as I know, has not yet been traced in Iranian directly, its existence 
follows from the Chinese record of the term. An analogy to this com- 
pound is presented by Kurd kizvan, kezvdn, kazu-van, kasu-van ("pista- 
chio" or "terebinthus-tree"). 1 

The Honzo kdmoku keimo (Ch. 25, fol. 24), written by Ono Ranzan 
/h ^ lH ll4, first published in 1804, revised in 1847 by Igu& Bosi # 
P il /,, his grandson, mentions the same plant K R j? -?, which 
reads in Japanese agetsu-konU. He gives also in Kana the names 
fusudasiu or fusudasu.* He states, "The plant is not known in Japan 
to grow wild. It used to come from foreign countries, but not so at 
present. A book called Zokyohi furoku Ifc %. $L PH" & mentions this 
plant, stating that agetsu-kon$i is the fruit of the tree c*a mu ffll ^C 
(in Japanese sakuboku) ." 3 

*A. JABA, Dictionnaire kurde-francais, p. 333. Cf. above the kasu-ddn of 
Kaempfer. 

2 These terms are also given by the eminent Japanese botanist MATSUMURA 
in his Shokubutsu mei-i (No. 2386), accompanied by the identification Pistacia 
vera. 

8 This tradition is indeed traceable to an ancient Chinese record, which will be 
found in the Cen lei pen ts'ao of 1108 (Ch. 12, p. 55, ed. of 1583). Here the question 
is of the bark of the san or I' a tree /{flfl ^C $, mentioned as early as the sixth century 
in the Kwan li ^ iS of Kwo Yi-kun as growing in wild country of Kwan-nan 
Bf f^J (the present province of K wan-tun and part of Kwan-si), and described in a 
commentary of the Er ya as resembling the mulberry-tree. This, of course, is a wild 
tree indigenous to a certain region of southern China, but, as far as I know, not yet 
identified, presumably as the ancient name is now obsolete. The Nan lou ki by 
Su Piao (see above) says that the fruits of this tree are styled wu min tse $ fa ^ 
(" nameless fruits"); hence the conclusion is offered by T'an Sen-wei, author of the 
Cen lei pen ts'ao, that this is the tree termed a-yue-hun by the Persians (that is, a cul- 
tivated Pistacia). This inference is obviously erroneous, as the latter was introduced 
from Persia into China either under the T'ang or a few centuries earlier, while the 
san or c'a tree pre-existed spontaneously in the Chinese flora. The only basis for this 
hazardous identification is given by the attribute "nameless." A solution of this 
problem is possible if we remember the fact that there is a wild Pistacia, Pistacia 
chinensis, indigenous to China, and if we identify with it the tree san or Va; then it 
is conceivable that the wild and the imported, cultivated species were correlated 
and combined under the same popular term wu min. MATSUMURA (op. cit., No. 
2382) calls P. chinensis in Japanese drenju, adding the characters JjJ $ The word 
lien refers in China to Melia azedarach. The modern Chinese equivalent for P. 
chinensis is not known to me. The peculiar beauty of this tree, and the great age to 
which it lives, have attracted the attention of the indefatigable workers of our 
Department of Agriculture, who have already distributed thousands of young trees to 
parks throughout the country (see Yearbook of the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
1916, p. 140, Washington, 1917). In the English and Chinese Standard Dictionary, 
the word "pistachio" is rendered by fei ffi which, however, denotes a quite dif- 



THE PISTACHIO 251 

G. A. STUART^ has identified a-yiie hun-tse z with Pistacia vera, and 
this is confirmed by Matsumura. 

The Japanese name fusudasiu or fusudasu is doubtless connected 
with Persian pista, from Old Iranian *pistaka, Middle Persian *pistak, 3 
from which is derived Greek PHTTCLKIOV, (^ITTCLKLOV, TnartLKiov or \l/iaro.Kiov y 
Latin psittacium, and our pistacia or pistachio. It is not known to me, 
however, to what date the Japanese word goes back, or through what 
channels it was received. In all likelihood it is of modern origin, the 
introduction into Japan being due to Europeans. 

In Chinese literature, the Persian word appears in the Geography 
of the Ming Dynasty, 4 in the transcription [ki-] pi-se-tan [M] 2 19, 
stated to be a product of Samarkand, the leaves of the tree resembling 
those of the San c'a Ul ^ (Camellia oleifera), and its fruit that of the 
yin hin 18 -3F (Salisburia adiantifolia). 

The Persian word, further, occurs in the new edition of the Kwan yii 
ki, entitled Tsen tin kwan yii ki *" ST R H IB. The original, the Kwan 
yii ki, was written by Lu Yin-yan 1^1 JS $if, and published during the 
Wan-li period in 1600. The revised and enlarged edition was prepared 
by Ts'ai Fan-pin ^ ft fift (hao Kiu-hia A ft) in 1686; a reprint of 
this text was issued in 1744 by the publishing-house Se-mei fan H H ^. 
Both this edition and the original are before me. The latter 6 mentions 
only three products under the heading "Samarkand"; namely, coral, 
amber, and ornamented cloth (hwa %ui pn^L^ 'ft* ) . The new edition, 
however, has fifteen additional items, the first of these being [ki-] 
pi-se-t*an, written as above, 7 stated to be a tree growing in the region 
of Samarkand. "The leaves of the tree," it is said, "resemble those 
of the san c*a (Camelia oleifera) ; the fruits have the appearance of the 
nut-like seeds of the yin hin (Salisburia adiantifolia), but are smaller." 
The word pi-se-fan doubtless represents the transcription of Persian 

ferent plant, Torreya nucifera. A revival on the part of the Chinese, of the good, 
old terms of their own language, would be very desirable, not only in this case, but 
likewise in many others. 

1 Chinese Materia Medica, p. 334. 

2 Wrongly transcribed by him o-yileh-chun-tzu. 

3 These reconstructions logically result from the phonetic history of Iranian, 
and are necessitated by the existence of the Greek loan-word. Cf ., further, Byzantine 
pustux and fustox, Comanian pistac, and the forms given below (p. 252). Persian 
pista is identified with Pistacia vera by SCHLIMMER (Terminologie, p. 465). 

4 Ta Min i t'un a, Ch. 89, p. 23. 

6 WYLIE, Notes on Chinese Literature, p. 59. 

6 Ch. 24, p. 6 b. 

7 The addition of ki surely rests on an error (ScHOTT also reads pi-sc-t'an, which 
he presumably found in his text; see the following note). 



2$2 SlNO-lRANICA 

pistdn ("a place abounding with pistachio-nuts"). 1 Again, the Persian 
word in the transcription pi-se-ta >& S ^ appears in the Pen ts*ao 
kan mu U i 2 by Cao Hio-min, who states that the habitat of the plant 
is in the land of the Mohammedans, and refers to the work Yin san 
ten yao 3 of 1331, ascribed by him to Hu-pi-lie M. >& 3$; that is, the 
Emperor Kubilai of the Yuan dynasty. We know, however, that this 
book was written in 1331 by Ho Se-hwi. 4 Not having access to this, 
I am unable to state whether it contains a reference to pi-se-ta, nor do 
I know whether the text of Cao Hio-min, as printed in the second 
edition of 1765, was thus contained in the first edition of his work, which 
was published in 1650. It would not be impossible that the tran- 
scription pi-se-ta t accurately corresponding to Persian pista, was 
made in the Mongol period; for it bears the ear-marks of the Yuan style 
of transcription. 

The Persian word pista (also pasta) has been widely disseminated: 
we find it in Kurd fystiq, Armenian fesdux and fstoiil, Arabic fistaq or 
fustaq, Osmanli fistiq? and Russian fistaSka. 

In the Yuan period the Chinese also made the acquaintance of 
mastic, the resinous product of Pistacia lentiscus* It is mentioned in 
the Yin San Zen yao, written in 1331, under its Arabic name mastaki, 
in the transcription $1 & % l!f ma-se-ta-ki. 7 Li Si-en knew only the 
medical properties of the product, but confessed his ignorance regarding 
the nature of the plant; hence he placed his notice of it as an appendix 
to cummin (&i-lo). The Wu tsa tsu 3L H 3EL, written in 1610, says that 
mastaki is produced in Turkistan and resembles the tsiao W (Zanth- 
oxylum y the fruit yielding a pepper-like condiment) ; its odor is very 
strong; it takes the place there pjE a condiment like pepper, and is 
beneficial to digestion. 8 The Persian word for "mastic" is kundurak 
(from kundur, "incense"), besides the Arabic loan-word mastaki or 

1 As already recognized by W. SCHOTT (Topographic der Producte des chinesi- 
schen Reiches, Abh. Berl.Akad., 1842, p. 371), who made use only of the new edition. 

2 Ch. 8, p. 19; ed. of 1765 (see above, p. 229). 
8 Cf. above, p. 236. 

4 BRETSCHNEIDER, Bot. Sin., pt. i, p. 213. 

6 Hence Pegoletti's fistuchi (YULE, Cathay, new ed. by CORDIER, Vol. Ill, 
p. 167). 

Greek axlvm (Herodotus, iv, 177). 

7 The Arabic word itself is derived from Greek tiaarlxn (from /uaorTafeu', "to 
chew"), because the resin was used as a masticatory. Hence also Armenian maz- 
tak'e. Spanish oLmdciga is derived from the Arabic, as indicated by the Arabic 
article a/, while the Spanish form mdsticis is based on Latin mastix. 

8 Quoted in the Pen ts'ao kan mu Si i, Ch. 6, p. 12 b. The digestive property 
is already emphasized by Dioscorides (i, 90). 



THE PISTACHIO 253 

mastaki. 1 The Persianized form is masdax; in Kurd it is mstekki. "On 
these mountains the Mastich Tree brings forth plenty of that gum, of 
which the country people make good profit. ... As for the Mastick 
Trees, they bore red berries, and if wounded would spew out the liquid 
resin from the branches; they are not very tall, of the bigness of our 
Bully Trees : Whether they bring forth a cod or not, this season would 
not inform me, nor can I say it agrees in all respects with the Lentisk 
Tree of Clusius." 2 The resin (mastic) occurs in small, irregular, yellowish 
tears, brittle, and of a vitreous fracture, but soft and ductile when 
chewed. It is used as a masticatory by people of high rank in India to 
preserve the teeth and sweeten the breath, and also in the preparation 
of a perfume. 8 It is still known in India as the "gum mastic of Rum." 4 
The case of the pistachio (and there are several others) is interesting 
in showing that the Chinese closely followed the development of Iranian 
speech, and in course of time replaced the Middle-Persian terms by the 
corresponding New-Persian words. 

1 ACHUNDOW, Abu Mansur, pp. 137, 267. 

2 JOHN FRYER, New Account of East India and Persia, Vol. II, p. 202 (Hakluyt 
Soc., 1912). 

8 WATT, Commercial Products of India, p. 902. 

4 D. C. PHILLOTT, Journal As. Soc. Bengal, Vol. VI, 1910, p. 81. 



THE WALNUT 

4. The Buddhist dictionary Fan yi min yi tsi H8 a? i& 3fe, 
compiled by Fa Yun fe 8, 1 contains a Chinese-Sanskrit name for the 
walnut (hu t*ao iK $6, Juglans regia) in the transcription po-lo-$i 
M !SI 6$, which, as far as I know, has not yet been identified with its 
Sanskrit equivalent. 2 According to the laws established for the Buddhist 
transcriptions, this formation is to be restored to Sanskrit paras*, 
which I regard as the feminine form of the adjective parasa, meaning 
"Persian" (derived from Parsa, "Persia"). The walnut, accordingly, 
as expressed by this term, was regarded in India as a tree or fruit sus- 
pected of Persian provenience. The designation parasi for the walnut 
is not recorded in Boehtlingk's Sanskrit Dictionary, which, by the way, 
contains many other lacunes. The common Sanskrit word for "walnut " 
is dkhota, aksoja, ak$osa* which for a long time has been regarded as 
a loan-word received from Iranian. 4 

Pliny has invoked the Greek names bestowed on this fruit as testi- 
mony for the fact that it was originally introduced from Persia, the 



1 Ch. 24, p. 27 (edition of Nanking). BUNYIU NANJIO (Catalogue of the 
Buddhist Tripitaka, No. 1640) sets the date of the work at 1151. WYLIE (Notes on 
Chinese Literature, p. 210) and BRETSCHNEIDER (Bot. Sin., pt. i, p. 94) say that it 
was completed in 1143. According to S. JULIEN (Me"thode, p. 13), it was compiled 
from 1143 to 1157. 

1 BRETSCHNEIDER (Study and Value of Chinese Botanical Works, Chinese 
Recorder, Vol. Ill, 1871, p. 222) has given the name after the Pen ts'aokan mu, but 
has left it without explanation. 

3 The last-named form occurs twice in the Bower Manuscript (HOERNLE'S 
edition, pp. 32, 90, 121). In Hindustani we have axrot or akrot. 

4 F. SPIEGEL, Arische Periode, p. 40. The fact that the ancient Iranian name for 
the walnut is still unknown does not allow us to explain the Sanskrit word satisfac- 
torily. Its relation to Hebrew egoz, and Persian koz, goz (see below), is perspicuous. 
Among the Hindu-Kush languages, we meet in Yidgha the word oghuzoh (J. BIDDULPH, 
Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh, Appendices, p. CLXVII), which appears as a missing 
link between Sanskrit on the one hand and the Semitic-Armenian forms on the other 
hand: hence we may conjecture that the ancient Iranian word was something like 
*agoza, angoza; and this supposition is fully confirmed by the Chinese transcription 
a-yiie (above, p. 248). Large walnuts of India are mentioned by the traveller C'an 
Te toward the middle of the thirteenth century (BRETSCHNEIDER, Mediaeval 
Researches, Vol. I, p. 146). The walnuts of the province of Kusistan in Persia, which 
are much esteemed, are sent in great quantities to India (W. AINSLIE, Materia 
Indica, Vol. I, p. 464). 

254 



THE WALNUT 255 

best kinds being styled in Greek Persicum and basilicon, 1 and these being 
the actual names by which they first became known in Italy. 2 Pliny 
himself employs the name nuces iuglandes. Although Juglans regia is 
indigenous to the Mediterranean region, the Greeks seem to have 
received better varieties from anterior Asia, hence Greek names like 
Kapva irepcriKCL or Kapva (nvwirLKa. 3 

In fact, Juglans regia grows spontaneously in northern Persia and 
in Baluchistan; it has been found in the valleys of the Pskem and 
Ablatun at altitudes varying from 1000 to 1500 m. Another species 
(Juglans pterocarpa, (( Juglans with winged fruits") is met in the prov- 
inces of Ghilan and Mazanderan and in the vicinity of Astrabad. 4 
A. ENGLER S states that the walnut occurs wild also in eastern Afghanis- 
tan at altitudes of from 2200 to 2800 m. Ibn Haukal extols the walnuts 
of Arrajan, Muqaddasl those of Kirman, and Istaxri those of the 
province of Jlruft. 6 

In Fergana, Russian Turkistan, the walnut is cultivated in gardens; 
but the nuts offered for sale are usually derived from wild-growing trees 
which form complete forests in the mountains. 7 According to A. STEIN,* 
walnuts abound at Khotan. The same explorer found them at Yiil-arik 
and neighboring villages. 9 

1 That is, "Persian nut" and "nut of the king," respectively, the king being 
the Basileus of Persia. These two designations are also given by Dioscorides (i, 178). 

2 Et has e Perside regibus translatas indicio sunt Graeca nomina: optimum 
quippe genus earum Persicum atque basilicon vocant, et haec fuere prima nomina 
(Nat. hist., xv, 22, 87). 

3 J. HOOPS, Waldbaume und Kulturpflanzen, p. 553. The Romans transplanted 
the walnut into Gallia and Germania during the first centuries of our era. Numerous 
walnuts have been brought to light from the wells of the Saalburg, testifying to 
the favor in which they were held by the Romans. The cultivation of the tree is 
commended in Charles the Great's Capitulare de villis and Garden Inventories. 
Its planting in Gaul is shown by the late Latin term nux gallica, Old French nois 
gauge, which survives in our "walnut" (German walnuss, Danish valnod, Old Norse 
valhnot, Anglo-Saxon wealh-hnutu) ; walk, wal, was the Germanic designation of the 
Celts (derived from the Celtic tribe Volcae), subsequently transferred to the Romanic 
peoples of France and Italy. 

4 C. JORET, Plantes dans I'antiquite", Vol. II, p. 44. Joret (p. 92) states that the 
Persians cultivated nut-trees and consumed the nuts, both fresh and dried. The 
walnut is twice mentioned in the Bundahisn among the fruits serving as food, and 
among fruits the inside of which is fit to eat, but not the outside (WEST, Pahlavi 
Texts, Vol. I, pp. 101, 103; cf. also p. 275). 

6 Erlauterungen zu den Nutzpflanzen der gemassigten Zonen, p. 22. 

6 P. SCHWARZ, Iran im Mittelalter, pp. 114, 218, 241. 

7 S. KORZINSKI, Sketches of the Flora of Turkistan, in Russian (Memoirs Imp. 
Russ. Ac., 8th ser., Vol. IV, No. 4, pp. 39, 53). 

8 Ancient Khotan, Vol. I, p. 131. 

9 Ruins of Desert Cathay, Vol. I, p. 152. 



256 SlNO-lRANICA 

The New-Persian name for the walnut is koz and goz. 1 According 
to HUBSCHMANN, this word comes from Armenian. 2 The Armenian word 
is 8ngoiz; in the same category belongs Hebrew egoz, 3 Ossetic angoza, 
Yidghal oyuza, Kurd egwz, Gruzinian nigozi.* The Persian word we 
meet as a loan in Turkish koz and xoz. b 

The earliest designation in Chinese for the cultivated walnut is hu 
t*ao ffl ft ("peach of the Hu" : Hu being a general term for peoples of 
Central Asia, particularly Iranians) . As is set forth in the Introduction, 
the term hu ip prefixed to a large number of names of cultivated plants 
introduced from abroad. The later substitution hu or ho t'ao t^ $6 
signifies " peach containing a kernel," or "seed-peach," so called because, 
while resembling a peach when in the husk, only the kernel is eaten. 6 
In view of the wide dissemination of the Persian word, the question 
might be raised whether it would not be justifiable to recognize it also 
in the Chinese term hu t'ao fiS ft, although, of course, in the first line it 
means "peach of the Hu (Iranians)." There are a number of cases 
on record where Chinese designations of foreign products may simulta- 
neously convey a meaning and represent phonetic transcriptions. 
When we consider that the word hu SB was formerly possessed of an 
initial guttural sonant, being sounded *gu (?u) or *go, 7 the possibility 
that this word might have been chosen in imitation of, or with especial 
regard to, an Iranian form of the type goz, cannot be denied: the two- 
fold thought that this was the "peach styled go" and the "peach of the 
Go or Hu peoples" may have been present simultaneously in the minds 
of those who formed the novel term; but this is merely an hypothesis, 
which cannot actually be proved, and to which no great importance is 
to be attached. 



1 Arabic joz; Middle Persian joz, joj. Kurd gvnz (guvnz), from govz, gdz (SociN, 
Grundr. iran. Phil., Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 268). Sariqoll ghauz (SHAW, Journal As. Soc. 
Bengal, 1876^.267). PuStu ughz, waghz. Another Persian designation for " walnut " 
is girdu or girdgan. 

2 Grundr. iran. Phil., Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 8; Armen. Gram., p. 393. 
8 Canticle vi, 10. Cf. Syriac gauza. 

4 W. MILLER, Sprache der Osseten, p. 10; HUBSCHMANN, Arm. Gram., p. 393. 

5 RADLOFF, Worterbuch der Turk-Dialecte, Vol. II, col. 628, 1710. In Osmanli 
jeviz. 

6 The term ho t*ao is of recent date. It occurs neither under the T'ang nor 
under the Sung. It is employed in the Kwo su ^ S, a work on garden-fruits by 
Wan Si-mou EE tfr J|, who died in 1591, and in the Pen ts'ao kan mu. The latter 
remarks that the word ho /^ is sounded in the north like hu ^ , and that the sub- 
stitution thus took place, citing a work Min wu ci & $} jfe as the first to apply 
this term. 

7 Compare Japanese go-ma $} jftc and go-fun j$ %fr . 



THE WALNUT 257 

There is a tradition to the effect that the walnut was introduced 
into China by General Can K'ien. 1 This attribution of the walnut to 
Can K'ien, however, is a purely retrospective thought, which is not 
contained in the contemporaneous documents of the Han Annals. There 
are, in fact, as we have seen, only two cultivated plants which can 
directly be credited to the mission of Can K'ien to the west, the 
grape and the alfalfa. All others are ascribed to him in subsequent 
books. BRETSCHNEIDER, in his long enumeration of Can-K'ien plants, 2 
has been somewhat uncritical in adopting the statements of such a 
recent work as the Pen ts'ao kan mu without even taking pains to ex- 
amine the sources there referred to. This subject requires a renewed 
critical investigation for each particular plant. As regards the walnut, 
Bretschneider was exposed to singular errors, which should be rectified, 
as they have passed into and still prominently figure in classical botani- 
cal and historical books of our time. According to Bretschneider, the 
walnut was brought from K'iang-hu ^1 W, and "K'iang" was at the 
time of the Han dynasty the name for Tibet. There is, of course, no 
such geographical name as "K'ian-hu"; but we have here the two 
ethnical terms, "K'iafi" and "Hu," joined into a compound. More- 
over, the K'iafi (anciently *Gian) of the Han period, while they may 
be regarded as the forefathers of the subsequent Tibetan tribes, did 
not inhabit the country which we now designate as Tibet; and the term 
"Hu" as a rule does not include Tibetans. What is said in this respect 
in the Pen ts'ao kan mu* is vague enough: it is a single sentence culled 
from the Tu kin pen ts'ao iK * 3 of Su Sun M ffi (latter part of 
the eleventh century) of the Sung period, which reads, "The original 
habitat of this fruit was in the countries of the K'iafi and the Hu" 
(Jib ^ ^ ffi ^ fiH). Any conclusion like an introduction of the walnut 
from "Tibet" cannot be based on this statement. 

Bretschneider's first victim was the father of the science of historical 
and geographical botany, A. DE CANDOLLE/ who stated, referring to 
him as his authority, "Chinese authors say that the walnut was 
introduced among them from Tibet, under the Han dynasty, by Chang- 



1 The first to reveal this tradition from the Pen ts'ao kan mu was W. SCHOTT 
(Abh. Berl. Akad., 1842, p. 270). 

2 Chinese Recorder, 1871, pp. 221-223; and Bot. Sin., pt. I, p. 25. Likewise 
Hirth, Toung Pao, Vol. VI, 1895, p. 439. Also GILES (Biographical Dictionary, p. 12) 
connects the walnut with Can K'ien. 

3 Ch. 30, p. 1 6. 

4 Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 427. 



258 SlNO-lRANICA 

kien, about the year 140-150 B.C." 1 In Hehn's " Kulturpflanzen "* 
we still read in a postscript from the hand of the botanist A. ENGLER, 
"Whether the walnut occurs wild in North China may be doubted, as 
according to Bretschneider it is said to have been imported there from 
Tibet." As will be seen below, a wild-growing species of Juglans is 
indeed indigenous to North China. As to the alleged feat of Can K'ien, 
the above-mentioned Su Sun, who lived during the Sung period in the 
latter part of the eleventh century, represents the source of this purely 
traditional opinion recorded by Bretschneider. Su Sun, after the above 
statement, continues, "At the time of the Han, when Can K'ien was 
sent on his mission into the Western Regions, he first obtained the 
seeds of this fruit, which was then planted in Ts'in (Kan-su) ; at a later 
date it gradually spread to the eastern parts of our country; hence it 
was named hu t* ao." 3 Su Sun's information is principally based on the 
Pen ts*ao of the Kia-yu period (1056-64) H Sft -fit K > ^; this work 
was preceded by the Pen ts'ao of the K'ai-pao period (968-976) ?M S 
^ ^; and in the latter we meet the assertion that Can K'ien should 
have brought the walnut along from the Western Regions, but cautiously 
preceded by an on dit (2*) . 4 The oldest text to which I am able to trace 
this tradition is the Po wu U fil %} ; of Can Hwa 5i ^ (A.D. 23 2-300). 5 
The spurious character of this work is well known. The passage, at any 
rate, existed, and was accepted in the Sung period, for it is reproduced 
in the T'ai p'in yu Ian. 6 We even find it quoted in the Buddhist dic- 
tionary Yi ts'ie kin yin i~~ ty f H H, 7 compiled by Yuan Yin 7C M 
about A.D. 649, so that this tradition must have been credited in the 



1 Besides Bretschneider's article in the Chinese Recorder, de Candolle refers to 
a letter of his of Aug. 23, 1881, which shows that Bretschneider had not changed 
his view during that decade. Needless to add, that Can K'ien never was in Tibet, 
and that Tibet as a political unit did not exist in his time. Two distinct traditions 
are welded together in Bretschneider's statement. 

* Eighth edition (1911), p. 400. 

* en lei pen ts'ao, Ch. 23, p. 45 (edition of 1521). G. A. STUART (Chinese 
Materia Medica, p. 223) regards the "Tangut country about the Kukunor" as the 
locality of the tree pointed out in the Pen ts'ao. 

4 The text of the K'ai-pao pen ts'ao is not reproduced in the Pen ts'ao kan mu> 
but will be found in the Ci wu min Si t'u k'ao, Ch. 17, p. 33. T'an Sen-wei |!f tR {5&> 
in his en lei pen ts'ao (Ch. 23, p. 44 b), has reproduced the same text in his own 
name. 

>mm H it lb (or g) m m m (Ch. 6, p. 4, of the Wu-c"an 
print). 

* Ch. 971, p. 8. 

7 Ch. 6, p. 8 b (ed. of Nanking). In this text the pomegranate and grape are 
added to the walnut. In the same form, the text of the Po wu li is cited in the modern 
editions of the 7V min yao Su (Ch. 10, p. 4). 



THE WALNUT 259 

beginning of the Tang dynasty. It is not impossible, however, that 
this text was actually written by Can Hwa himself, or at least that the 
tradition underlying it was formed during the fourth century; for, as 
will be seen, it is at that time that the walnut is first placed on record. 
Surely this legend is not older than that period, and this means that 
it sprang into existence five centuries after Can K'ien's lifetime. It 
should be called to mind that the Po wu ci entertains rather fantastic 
notions of this hero, and permits him to cross the Western Sea and even 
to reach Ta Ts'in. 1 It is, moreover, the Po wu ci which also credits to 
Can K'ien the introduction of the pomegranate and of ta or hu swan 
^C (S3 ) IS or hu i (Allium scorodoprasum) . 2 Neither is this tradition 
contained in the texts of the Han period. The notion that Can K'ien 
really introduced the walnut in the second century B.C. must be posi- 
tively rejected as being merely based on a retrospective and unauthentic 
account. 3 

The question now arises, Is there any truth in Su Sun's allegation 
that the walnut was originally produced in the country of the K'iaii? 
Or, in other words, are we entitled to assume the co-existence of two 
Chinese traditions, first, that the walnut was introduced into China 
from the regions of the Hu (Iranians) ; and, second, that another intro- 
duction took place from the land of the K'iaii, the forefathers of the 
Tibetans? 4 There is indeed an ancient text of the Tsin period from the 
first part of the fourth century, one of the earliest datable references 
to the walnut, in which its origin from the K'ian is formally admitted. 
This text is preserved in the T*ai p'in yu Ian as follows: 

"The mother of Liu T'ao f'J i@, 5 in her reply to the letter of Yu 
SI , princess of the country of Wu ^ 13, said, 'In the period Hien-ho 
Jfc ?P (A.D. 326-335, of the Tsin dynasty) I escaped from the rebellion 

1 Ch. i, p. 3 b. 

2 See below, p. 302. 

3 The tan-K'ien legend is also known in Korea (Korea Review, Vol. II, 1902, 
P. 393)- 

4 The term k'ian t'ao ^ $6 for the walnut is given, for instance, in the Hwa 
kin Jfc H , "Mirror of Flowers" (Ch. 3, p. 49), written by C'en Hao-tse ffi f|| 
-J* in 1688. He gives as synonyme also wan swi tse^jjf He -J- ("fruits of ten thousand 
years"). The term k'ian t'ao is cited also in the P'ei wen lai kwan k'iln fan p'u 
(Ch. 58, p. 24; regarding this work cf. BRETSCHNEIDER, Bot. Sin., pt. i, p. 70), and in 
the P'an San li jj| [I] J& (Ch.is, p. 2 b; published in 1755 by order of K'ien-luh). 

5 The T'u su tsi e'en and Kwan k'iin fan p*u (Ch. 58, p. 25) write this name Niu 
Hfc. The Ko li kin yuan (Ch. 76, p. 5), which ascribes this text to the Tsin su, gives 
it as S. The Tan Sun pai k'un leu t'ie Jjf 7JC & ft ^C iffi (Ch. 99, p. 12) has, "The 
mother of Liu T'ao of the Tsin dynasty said, in reply to a state document, 'walnuts 
were originally grown in the country of the Western K'ian. 1 " 



260 SlNO-lRANICA 



of Su Tsun Hit ift 1 into the Lin-nan mountains E! : Ul. The country 
of Wu sent a messenger with provisions, stating in the accompanying 
letter: 'These fruits are walnuts $) $fc and fei-tah ^ I8. 2 The latter 
come from southern China. The walnuts were originally grown abroad 
among the Western K'iafi (fi^tt^^S^^S). Their exterior is hard, 
while the interior is soft and sweet. Owing to their durability I wish to 
present them to you as a gift.' " 3 It is worthy of note, that, while the 
walnut is said in this text to hail from the Western K'ian, the term 
hu fao (not k'ian t'ao) is employed; so that we may infer that the intro- 
duction of the fruit from the Hu preceded in time the introduction 
from the K'ian. It is manifest also that in this narrative the walnut 
appears as a novelty. 

The Tibetan name of the walnut in general corresponds to a type 
tar-ka, as pronounced in Central Tibetan, written star-ka, star-ga, 
and dar-sga* The last-named spelling is given in the Polyglot Dic- 
tionary of K'ien-lun, 5 also in Jaschke's Tibetan Dictionary. The element 
ka or ga is not the well-known suffix used in connection with nouns, 6 
but is an independent base with the meaning "walnut," as evidenced 
by Kanaurl ka (" walnut"). 7 The various modes of writing lead to a 
restitution */ar, dar, d'ar (with aspirate sonant). This word is found 
also in an Iranian dialect of the Pamir: in Waxi the walnut is called 

1 He died in A.D. 328. His biography is in the Tsin Su, Ch. 100, p. 9. See also 
L. WIEGER, Textes historiques, p. 1086. 

2 Literally, "flying stalk of grain." Bretschneider and Stuart do not mention 
this plant. Dr. T. Tanaka, assistant in the Bureau of Plant Industry, Department 
of Agriculture, Washington, tells me that fei-Zan is a synonyme of the fingered citrus 
(fu Sou kan $ ^ iftj", Citrus chirocarpus) . He found this statement in the Honzo 
komoku keimd (Ch. 26, p. 18, ed. 1847) by Ono Ranzan, who on his part quotes the 
T'un ya $1 $| by Fan I-&. 

3 The Tai p'in yu Ian reads *S ^ 5? C # $ M The Tan Sun pai k'un 
leu fie and the Tu S'u tsi ten, however, have ?Hl"&!lflfc^^S' " tn eir 
substance resembles the ancient sages, and I wish to present them," apparently a 
corruption of the text. 

4 W. W. ROCKHILL (Diary of a Journey through Mongolia and Tibet, p. 340) 
gives taga as pronunciation in eastern Tibet. J. D. HOOKER (Himalayan Journals, 
p. 237) offers taga-$in (Sin, "tree") as Bhutia name. 

5 Ch. 28, p. 55. 

6 SCHIEFNER, Melanges asiatiques, Vol. I, pp. 380-382. 

7 Given both by T. R. JOSHI (Grammar and Dictionary of the Kanawari Lan- 
guage, p. 80) and T. G. BAILEY (Kanauri-English Vocabulary, Journal Royal As. 
Soc., 1911, p. 332). Bailey adds to the word also the botanical term Juglans regia. 
The same author, further, gives a word ge as meaning "kernel of walnut; edible part 
of Pinus gerardiana"; while Joshi (p. 67) explains the same word as the "wild 
chestnut." Thus it seems that ge, ka, originally referred to an indigenous wild-grow- 
ing fruit, and subsequently was transferred to the cultivated walnut.