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شاد باشید





Te Heritage: Care-Preservation-Management program has been designed to
serve the needs of the museum and heritage community worldwide. It publishes
books and information services for professional museum and heritage workers,
and for all the organizations that service the museum community.
Editor-in-chef: Andrew Wheat croft
Architecture in Conservation:
Managing developments at historic sites
James Strike
The Development of Costume
Noami Tarrant
Forward Planning: A handbook of business, corporate and
development planning for museums and galleries
Edited by Timothy Ambrose and Sue Runyard
The Handbook for Museums
Gary Edson and David Dean
Heritage Gardens: Care, conservation and management
Sheena Mackellar Goulty
Heritage and Tourism: In the 'global village'
Priscilla Boniface and Peter J. Fowler
The Indusial Heritage: Managing resources and uses
Judith Alfrey and Tim Putman
Managing Quality Cultural Tourism
Pricilla Boniface
Museum Basics
Timothy Ambrose and Crispin Paine
Museum, Media, Message
Edited by Eilean Hooper-Greenhill
Museum Security and Protection:
A handbook for cultural heritage institutions
ICOM and ICMS
Museums: A place to work - planning museum careers
Jane R. Glaser with Artemis A. Zenetou
Museums 2000: Politics, people, professionals and profit
Edited by Patrick J. Boylan
Museums and the Shaping of Knowledge
Eilean Hooper-Greenhill
Museums and their Vision
Eilean Hooper-Greenhill
Museums without Barriers: A new deal for disabled people
Fondation de France and ICOM
The Past in Contemporary Society: Then/Now
Peter J. Fowler
The presentation of the Past: Museums and heritage in the post-modern world
Kevin Walsh
Towards the Museum of the Future: New European perspectives
Edited by Roger Miles and Lauro Zavala














Museum Exhibition
Theory and Practice
David Dean





























First published 1994
by Routledge
11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001
First published in paperback 1996
B 1994, 1996 David Dean
Typeset in Sabon by
Florencetype Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
Butler 81 Tanner Ltd, Frome, Somerset
Printed on acid free paper
All rights reserved. No pan of this hook may bc reprinted or
reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
British Library Cotologing in Publication Data
A catalogue record far this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Dean, David
Museum exhibition: theory and practice / David Dean.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Exhibitions. 2. Museum techniques. I. Title.
AM151.D43 1993
069'5-dc20 93-24653
ISBN 0415-08016-9 (hbk)
ISBN 0-415-08017-7 (pbk)




























To the students of the art of exhibition, everywhere.














































Museum Exhibition
In recent years, museums have developed into multi-dimensional organizations,
displaying, preserving and collecting objects which are of increasing interest to
the global community. They have adapted to a consumer-oriented world and
now compete for our attention with other "leisure-time" activities. They must
prove themselves worthy of the visitor's time and attention by developing quality
exhibitions.
Museum Exhibition: Theory and Practice is the only textbook of its kind to
consider exhibition development from an integrated approach from theory to
practice. The field of exhibition preparation is a complex and demanding one,
calling on a variety of professional skills. Designers must have creative ability
and aesthetic sense as well as considerable skills in writing, management and
interpretation. David Dean examines a wide range of exhibition development
concerns, including planning and design of exhibitions, collection care of
exhibits, display evaluation and administration, content and text development
for exhibitions and computer usage.
Museum Exhibition provides a complete outline for all those concerned with
providing displays for museums and similar cultural heritage concerns. It will
be essential reading for all museum professionals.
David Dean is the Assistant Director for Operations and Adjunct Professor
in the Museum Science Program at the Museum of Texas Tech University in
Lubbock, Texas. He teaches communications and interpretation in the program
and oversees the museum's exhibitions division. Mr. Dean has been involved in
exhibition design and production for eighteen years in the respective roles of
preparator, designer, production manager and administrator. He is the
co-author, with Gary Edson, of The Handbook for Museums (1994).























Contents


List of illustrations

Acknowledgments

Introduction

The museum exhibition mission
Types of exhibits
The role of interpretation
Conclusions

1 The exhibition development process
Approaches to planning
Conceptual phase
Development phase
Functional phase
Assessment phase

2 Audiences and learning
People and museums
Targeting audiences
Motivations
Learning and museum exhibitions
Conclusions

3 Designing exhibitions
Value
Color
Texture
Balance
Li ne
Shape
Human factors in exhibition design
Behavioral tendencies
Methodologies and design strategies
Traffic flow approaches
Object arrangement
Special considerations
Presenting design ideas

4 Controlling the exhibition environment
Identification and scope
Macro-environments
Special concerns of micro-environments
Conclusions

5 Exhibition administration
Scheduling
Contracting
Production and resource management
Documentation
Publicity and marketing

6 Exhibition evaluation
What to evaluate
When to evaluate
How to evaluate
Conclusions

7 Storyline and text development
The storyline
Storyline elements
Text preparation
Guidelines for writing effective text
Typography and production methods
Type specifications
Conclusions

8 Computers in the exhibition environment
Computer capabilities and uses
Computers as exhibition elements
Computers in exhibition production
Computers as administrative aids
Conclusions
Appendix 1 Infestation report
Appendix 2 Exhibition request form
Appendix 3 Checklist for exhibition development
Glossary
















Illustrations



Exhibit content scale
Exhibition project model
Values and Lifestyles Segments model
Maslow's Hierarchy of Human Needs
Functions of the brain
Value scale by 5 percent increments
Basic color wheel
Illustrations of visual textures
Visual balance
Illustrations of line
Illustrations of shape
Basic human dimensions (adult)
Barriers, ropes, and implied boundaries
Gallery entrances
Viewing height and comfortable visual space
Sitting and leaning behavior
Spatial relationships
Illustrations of spaces
Floor plan of suggested approach to traffic flow
Floor plan of unstructured approach to traffic flow
Floor plan of directed approach to traffic flow
Viewing height and center of mass
Flush arrangement
Horizon line arrangements
Directionality
Balanced object arrangement
Flanking object arrangement
Spiraling object arrangement
Simple model
Complex model
"Box in a box" configuration of exhibition elements

Museum insect pests
Illumination levels
Gallery schedule
Interpretation loop
Justified left (ragged right)
Justified right (ragged left)
Justified text
Centered text
Horizontally oriented text block
Vertically oriented text block
Italicized text
Bold text
Underlined text
Expanded text
Condensed text
Times-Roman typestyle
Helvetica typestyle
Zapf Chancery typestyle
Old English typestyle
Examples of specialty typestyles
Typographic terms
Enlargement/reduction formulae






































Acknowledgments
Products are often the result of activity driven by need. This book is a product
that resulted from the need to have a text for teaching exhibition design. The
students of the Museum Science Program (Museum of Texas Tech University)
provided the initial need that triggered the activity. My thanks to them and to
the institution.
Activity requires support to prosper. The museum director, Gary Edson,
provided much of the support, both intellectually and operationally, that made
the product possible. My thanks to him.
Activity also requires time to realize the product. I offer my special thanks to
my understanding wife, Sue, and my children, Kendra and Daniel, for their
support in this effort, and for freely giving of the time that rightfully was theirs.








































Introduction
Museums began as human society's equivalent of cultural memory banks.
Through the years they have evolved into much more. Though the prime
medium is tangible objects, the essential value of collections is the information
contained in them and what it means to the global community. Other
institutions deal in information also, but only museums uniquely collect,
preserve, research, and publicly display objects as an essential function of their
existence.

In the later part of the twentieth century, museums have become multi-faceted,
multi-purposed, and multi-dimensional organizations. The era of the
user-friendly resource is in full stride; the Information Age is upon us.
Museums have had to adapt to this consumer-oriented world to compete with
other, so-called "leisure-time" activities. Whether one agrees that leisure is a
correct classification for former "temples of learning" is a matter of opinion.
Regardless of one's viewpoint, museums do exist as optional elements in the
majority of the population's daily lifestyles. As an option, museums must prove
themselves worthy of the visitor's attention and time.

In the past few decades, museums have seen significant improvements in
collection care and use, and in the fields of exhibition presentation and public
programming. The level of knowledge about nearly every technical aspect of
the museum field is expanding constantly. New fields and sub-disciplines
are opening up and evolving. The museum of the next century may he very
different from the ones we now know. However, one aspect has always
been, remains, and will probably continue to be fundamental to the museum
institutional identity: public exhibitions.
The field of exhibition development and preparation is a complex and
demanding one. Many subjects and disciplines are involved that must he
mastered and their terminologies understood. Designers need a positive attitude
toward and a creative ability for problem solving. They must have the desire to communicate ideas to others, a well developed aesthetic sense, and considerable skill in writing, management, computer use, and interpretation. Increasingly knowledge about audiences, traffic control, and educational goals is needed.

Obviously not every person entering the museum profession is either trained or
talented in all aspects of the exhibition process, nor are they always inclined
toward making exhibitions a career. However, exhibitions are rarely the
product of one individual. They require teamwork involving all museum
specialities. In museums where one or two persons constitute the entire
exhibition design and production resources, knowledge is a powerful tool for
achieving success. General knowledge of exhibition theories, methodologies,
and practices is the best tool that an exhibition team member in any size of
organization can acquire. This book aims to provide the interested reader with
an overview of those areas where knowledge is needed to accomplish the
institutional goals.

The museum exhibition mission

While profit may not be the specific motive, museums have the desire to "sell"
the institution, change attitudes, modify behavior, and increase conformity (of
knowledge). All are viable and reasonable goals for museums.

The main difference between commercial or public-service exhibits and
museum exhibitions lies in the motive or mission of the respective organizations.
The term commercial exhibit is self-defining. It has as a goal the
selling of a product or services for financial gain. A public-service exhibit is
likewise obvious in its meaning: informing the public and changing
attitudes and behaviors. However, is the term museum exhibition as obvious?
It is, if the word "museum" is considered. Museum means a dwelling for the
Muses - a place for study, reflection, and learning. Therefore, museum
exhibitions are self-defining as well. They have the mission to provide places for
education and reflection.

The museological motivation for exhibiting is to provide the objects and
information necessary for learning to occur. Exhibitions fulfill, in part, the
museum institutional mission by exposing collections to view, thus affirming the
public's trust in the institution as caretaker of the societal record. Museum
exhibitions also accomplish several other goals. These include:

• Promoting community interest in the museum by offering alternative leisure
activities where individuals or groups may find worthwhile experiences.
• Supporting the institution financially: exhibitions help the museum as a
whole justify its existence and its expectation for continued support.
Donors, both public and private, are more likely to give to a museum with
an active and popular exhibition schedule.
• Providing proof of responsible handling of collections if a donor wishes to
give objects. Properly presented exhibitions confirm public trust in the
museum as a place for conservation and careful preservation. Potential
donors of objects or collections will be much more inclined to place their
treasures in institutions that will care for the objects properly, and will
present those objects for public good in a thoughtful and informative
manner.

In general, a healthy and well-presented public exhibitions program affords
an institution credibility to its supporting community and to the broader
community of museums. Exhibitions have the intent to advance the institutional
mission by exposing collections to public view, providing enlightening and
educational experiences, and proving the public trust. Further, the specific goals
of museum exhibitions involve the desire to change attitudes, modify behavior,
and increase the availability of knowledge.




Types of exhibits

For clarification, it is wise to define terms. The words "exhibit," "exhibition,"
and "display" all have rather arbitrary meanings that vary from institution to
institution, person to person. As dictionary definitions are of little help in
solving these semantic differences, it is necessary to continue the arbitrary
tradition of defining terms. For the purposes of this book, the word "display"
will generally refer to a presentation of objects for public view without
significant interpretation added. "Exhibit" will usually mean the localized
grouping of objects and interpretive materials that form a cohesive unit within
a gallery. "Exhibition" will be used to allude to a comprehensive grouping of
all elements (including exhibits and displays) that form a complete public
presentation of collections and information for the public use.

It is generally assumed that museum exhibitions incorporate collection objects,
or their representations, as the primary channels of communication. However,
that is not always true. Some museum-related displays may incorporate few or
no objects at all. These presentations are informational in content and intent.
There are legitimate uses and reasons for this form of display, but by and large,
the uniqueness of museum exhibitions rests in their employment of the "real
thing."

Intent or purpose lies with the exhibit maker. Exhibitions range from being
either object-oriented at one extreme, to concept-oriented at the other. That is,
either objects or messages predominate. The scale in Figure 0.1, adapted from
diagram 9 in Verhaar and Meeter's Project Model Exhibitions2,
illustrates this
idea:




• At one end is the object display. This is a presentation of objects purely for
the objects' sake; no interpretive information is involved. It is like setting a
collection of vases or ceramic figures on a shelf in a home. The intent is
simply to arrange the objects attractively, relying upon them to speak for
themselves.
• At the other extreme is the information display in which objects are either
not present or of minimal importance. This kind of presentation depends
upon text and graphics to get its message across, much as a book does. The
intent is to communicate an idea or ideas that the exhibitor has determined
are in the viewers' best interest to know.

Along the diagram's diagonal line is where one finds most exhibitions. The
relative dominance of one aspect or the other determines whether an exhibition
is more object- or concept-oriented. Possible and common combinations are:

• The object-oriented exhibition in which collections are central. Educational
information is limited. Relationships, values, and hidden or implied
meanings are not examined to any significant degree. The exhibition maker
focuses on a direct aesthetic or a classification approach to presentation - art
is often presented in this way.
• The concept-oriented is one where is attention is focused on the massage and the transfer of information rather than on the collections. The aim is to transmit a message regardless of whether collections are available to assist interpretation or for illustration. Text, graphics, photographs, and other didactic materials play a dominant role. The main advantages of this type of presentation over a book are the elements of size and wider exposure.

In the middle ground there are exhibitions that recognize the dual museum
missions to collect objects and to use them to educate.

Thematic exhibitions, closer to the object-oriented end of the scale, use
collections arranged around a theme with basic information provided, such
as a title sign and identification and caption labels. For instance, in an
exhibition featuring works of Pablo Picasso, the pieces might be exhibited
with only basic information, relying upon the artist's reputation and available
distributional materials and catalogs to impart what interpretive
details are considered desirable.

Closer to the concept-oriented end are "educational" exhibitions that
incorporate about 60 percent information and 40 percent objects (see
Figure 0.1). Textual information is heavily relied upon to assist in
transmitting the exhibition message.

It is important to note that no sharp line of demarcation exists between the two
ends of the scale, and that none of the combinations is inherently right or
wrong. Planning decisions about the type of exhibition to have must be based
upon what message is to be communicated and what combination of objects
and information will do the job most effectively. Such choices ought to be
deliberate and founded upon the goals of the institution and the developers'
knowledge of their target audiences.

Arguably, since a museum's primary milieu is the "real thing," it might be
assumed that all that is required is to place objects on public view and let them
speak for themselves. When interpretation and communication are minimal,
leaving presentation dominant, the result is what is called "open storage."
This form of exhibitory hearkens back to an earlier, largely obsolete display
methodology. In particular instances and for specific purposes, there is still
validity for open storage as a display strategy.

However, what does a painting, a bone, or a rock communicates in and of itself?
Is the story behind the object always the main point, or is the emotional impact
the main objective? These are questions to consider when making decisions
about the kind of exhibition to pursue.


The role of interpretation

As museums have moved into a more proactive stance toward their parent
communities in this century, the educational mission has become a primary
focus of exhibitions. This has meant that the stoically static exhibitory of the past has given way to active efforts to communicate the information contained in collections. How much of its underlying history or meaning does a painting reveal without interpretation? The information behind an object must be related to the viewer through a planned and directed explanation for it to have some meaning.


The desires that museum exhibitors have for communication vary from
museum to museum, exhibit to exhibit, and community to community.
However, some messages can be reasonably well identified as being common to
most museum exhibition efforts.

One such message is that museums are places to encounter actual objects - the
"real thing." Exhibitions allow the public at least a near approach to the
collections. This has the effect of stimulating curiosity and interest. The value
of being in the presence of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa or the skeletal
remains of a Tyrannosaurus rex is unquestionable, though incalculable. The
hoped-for results might be fostering a sensitivity to art or science, and learning
as a whole realm of human experience. How do such aspirations relate to
exhibitions of farm equipment or Stone Age tools? The desired results are the
same: engendering interests and curiosity that will develop into long-term
personal growth and enrichment.

In addition to the rather intangible benefits afforded by exhibitions at a
personal level, there are the broader ones available to public institutions and to
the museum itself. As an alternative educational partner for schools, museums
are invaluable and unparalleled. Coordination between exhibition goals
and school curricula can be extremely beneficial. Bringing subject matter to
life, in a tangible way, is what museum exhibitions excel at doing. A museum
visit can do much to stimulate a student's lifelong interest in a subject.

Museum exhibitions offer an enjoyable means of assimilating information,
sometimes of great complexity. The fact of viewing the real thing is, in itself,
intellectually pleasing for many people. The opportunity to view objects in
relaxed, comfortable surroundings where interaction between the viewer and
the object, the student and the teacher, visitor and docent, and the pupils and
their peers can occur, leads to retention and internalizing of an otherwise
academic topic. It is far more rewarding to view an actual pre-Columbian
figure, than simply to read about it in a book and look at a picture. The effect
of doing both fosters lasting impressions and increased retention of knowledge
gained.

The entertainment value of exhibitions should not be overlooked, either. Again,
communication occurring in a relaxed, enjoyable environment promotes
willingness to learn and to continue learning. The "Gee whiz!" factor is part of
this entertainment aspect. Things that are big, famous, real, or impressive in
some sense are readily and eagerly examined by most people. When a person's
. attention is captured, study occurs. When study is guided by interesting and
understandable labeling or docenting, learning occurs without duress or
discomfort.

Conclusions

The museological mission of education is accomplished in large part by
presenting public exhibitions. Information presented in ways that excite
curiosity and stimulate the desire to learn results in people responding positively
to the activity of learning. When the patron exits an exhibition with the sense
that he or she is personally enriched for having made the effort to visit, then
for that individual, the museum goal is attained. For, not only will he or she
have a positive attitude about learning, they will have gained knowledge and
understanding as well.

Museums are institutions for social as well as academic enlightenment. They
provide non-confrontational and eclectic venues for expressing ideas that are
sometimes, themselves, controversial. As forums for free expression, exhibitions
are ideal. They are based upon the tangible evidence of the cultural and
scientific progression of humankind. Presented in an environment that allows
the viewers to learn, reflect, and assimilate the world at their own pace, the
baggage of preconceptions and biases can be dispelled and new, enlightened
attitudes engendered.

Unlike formalized public education, museums are always available. There is no
age or intellectual prerequisite. Everyone is welcome, indeed encouraged, to
share in the wealth of human accomplishment represented by museum
collections. Whether a small grouping of local heritage memorabilia, or a vast
assemblage of artistic and scientific artifacts, all museums need the outlet of
exhibitions to make their treasures available to the people who support and
derive benefit from them.











1
The exhibition development
process
Approaches to planning
Institutions and organizations such as museums are much like the proverbial
iceberg. Most of the substance lies below the surface, hidden from view.
Nearly all museums depend upon public use and approval to justify their places
within society, so there is a real need for demonstration of the richness of those
hidden depths. Exhibitions and programs are the principle public expressions
of the heart of museums: the collections.

The popular understanding of exhibitions does not recognize or appreciate the
inner mechanisms required to prepare and present them. Like Athena leaping
full-grown from the head of Zeus, there is a mythical quality to the ease with
which exhibitions appear in public. However, as with any project, exhibitions
require much planning and management to realize the end product. Over time,
the sequence of events and efforts that produce public exhibitions has become
established. The procedural elements in planning and executing any project are
universal, regardless of the end product. The main difference between creating
an exhibition and preparing a sales strategy or building an automobile is the
mission of the organization undertaking the project.

In commercial affairs, accomplishing tasks is a highly organized operation. The
systematized approach used by businesses to manage their projects can be quite
valuable if related to exhibition development. That is because any course of
action with a product as its final goal is a project. As the process used in
producing commercial products has proven to be effective, museums have
adopted the methodology, and even the terminology, of business to describe the
equivalent developmental steps in making exhibitions. Understanding the
process is easier when outlined as a series of phases and subordinate stages.
All projects, regardless of their beginning or intended outcome, share common
traits. The time it takes to plan, develop, and execute the project is limited.
Projects are cyclical. They have beginnings that arise from ideas generated
from former activities, and after running their courses, they generate new
approaches and ideas for future projects.

As Figure 1.1 shows, a project may be illustrated as a series of events along a
line of time. This is called a project model. It is easy to see how an exhibition's
development fits into such a model.









The progressive, sequential nature of the project model works well with
museum exhibition development. The sequential arrangement of phases and
stages may be outlined to make types of activities and specific tasks more
easily discernible. Throughout development, and in each phase, there are three
principle tasking areas. They are:

• Product-oriented activities - efforts centered on the collection objects and
their interpretation.
• Management-oriented activities - tasks that focus on providing resources
and personnel necessary to completing the project.
• Coordination activities - keeping the product- and management-oriented
activities working toward the same goal.

OUTLINE OF EXHIBITION DEVELOPMENT

Conceptual phase

Product-oriented activities:
collecting ideas
comparing ideas with audience needs and the museum's mission
selecting projects to develop
• Management activities:
assessing available resources to do the project
• Results:
a schedule of exhibitions
identification of potential or available resources

Developmental phase

Planning stage
• Product-oriented activities:
setting goals for the exhibition
writing the storyline
designing the physical exhibition
creating an educational plan
researching promotional strategies
• Management activities:
estimating costs
investigating sources and applying for funding
establishing resource budgets
appointing tasks
• Results:
an exhibition plan
an educational plan
a promotional plan

Production stage

• Product-oriented activities:
preparing the exhibition components
mounting and installing the collection objects
developing the educational programs and training docents
implementing the promotional plan
• Management activities:
overseeing the availability and use of resources
tracking progress and coordinating activities
• Results:
presenting the exhibition to the public
using the educational programs with the exhibition

Functional phase

Operational stage
• Product-oriented activities:
presenting the exhibition to the public on a regular basis
implementing the educational programs
conducting visitor surveys
maintaining the exhibition
providing security for the exhibition
• Management activities:
settling accounts
administration of personnel and services
• Results:
achieving the exhibition goals
preventing deterioration of collections

Terminating stage

• Product-oriented activities:
dismantling the exhibition
returning objects to the collection storage
documenting collection handling

• Management activities:
balancing accounts
• Results:
the exhibition is ended
the collections are returned
the gallery is cleared and repaired

Assessment phase

• Product-oriented activities:
assessing the exhibition
assessing the development process
• Management activities:
creating an evaluation report
• Results:
an evaluation report
suggested improvements to the product and the process

The application of the models and the outline to the actual process of
exhibition development will be clearer if each part is examined separately. It
is important to note that, although dissecting the process provides useful
handles to grasp ideas by, the real activities are not always so clearly delineated.
Often activities flow together and mix with each other as the project
progresses.


Conceptual phase

To embark upon a detailed exploration of exhibition development, we must
begin with its inception. Exhibitions start as ideas that come from many
sources. Listed are some frequently encountered:
• audience suggestions
• board members or trustees
• collections management personnel
• community leaders
• curators
• current events
• director
• educators
• staff and volunteers
•
Ideas for exhibitions are not always conceived in an orderly fashion and
often arrive with a variety of personal agendas attached. A patron, staff or board
member may see an exhibition at another museum, watch a program on television,
or read a magazine, and thus become motivated to propose an exhibition
topic. The experiences of individuals, the assessed needs of a community, or a new
collection acquisition may provide the impetus for exhibiting. In some cases, the
need to replace other exhibitions will prompt the search for new ideas and
themes.

In all cases, the motivations to exhibit should emanate from a prevailing
predisposition toward serving the public. Museums should be like leaky vessels
or sponges in their communities. Ideas should seep in from all directions and
I be sifted constantly, searching for those that fulfill the criteria of public service
and education. It is not appropriate for exhibitions to arise solely as outlets for
self-aggrandizement by staff or board members. Often an initiator's exuberance
for his or her idea leaps ahead of thoughtful consideration or careful planning.
Failure to channel enthusiasm into a cooperative organizational process may
lead to a chaotic and frustrating mixture of conflicting communication and
confused goals. The outcome will be lack of focus, disaffection, dissatisfaction,
and inferior exhibitions.

To avoid such a regrettable condition the administration needs to place the
role and function of the museum foremost. Responsible collection care,
and properly assessing the needs of the museum's public are at the heart of
conscientious exhibitions and interpretive programs. However and wherever
ideas may arise, a phased development plan permits everyone involved to see
their part in the process with clarity.

Though ideas arise in many ways from multiple sources, there must be
decisions made as to which to pursue or discard. Organizations develop
approaches to decision-making that work for them. These approaches have
many variations rendering a single set of criteria too restrictive to be useful
to all organizations. However, it is vital that decisions be made based upon
a well-defined sub-sex of public-oriented criteria, rather than on personal
biases.

Ideally, short- and long-range plans that incorporate the museum mission,
constituency needs, educational goals, scope of collections, and available
resources are a part of the organizational documentation arsenal. Established
standards ensure that choices are responsible. At the administrative level, a
regularly reviewed written exhibition policy should be a priority. Appointing a
committee to do initial research and provide advice can be helpful as well.
Formulating exhibition strategies using foundational instruments will meet
constituency needs. Lack of definition in planning exhibition programs will lead
to a museum being driven by the demand to fill space, rather than by ethical
purpose and educational design.

The current consensus of the role of museums in their communities rests upon
twin cornerstones: accountability to a constituency, and adherence to accepted
professional museum standards. Arbitrary, unilateral choices in exhibition
topics are not acceptable to a public with other leisure options. Personal
preferences of staff or board members are not adequate foundations upon
which to build an exhibition program. Even in small museums, where staffs
are small and often voluntary, the decision-making process needs to be clearly
set down and the development of an exhibition program founded upon a
recognition of community needs and professionalism.

An understanding of community needs and expectations comes from audience
assessment. A serious and common mistake is basing decisions about exhibition
programs on internal assumptions about community needs, rather than on
information gathered from the community itself. Obtaining such knowledge
requires time, skills, and energies both to collect and to keep it current.
These resources are often unavailable to largely volunteer governing boards.
Professional consultants or staff members versed in the methodologies and
techniques of community assessment are the proper parties to develop and
apply exhibition assessment criteria. In many communities, chambers of
commerce have already done visitor surveys, and demographic and psychographic
studies. They are usually quite willing to make such information
available to public-oriented institutions.

Having gained a working knowledge of community needs and expectations,
and armed with the museum mission statement and exhibition policy, the task
is to evaluate the suggested exhibitions. Using the knowledge and documents as
filters and guides, a slate of exhibitions can be generated that demonstrates
sensitivity toward constituency needs and expectations, while adhering to
institutional goals and standards.

Conceptual phase activities can be viewed as product- and management-oriented,
although not as clearly as the later phases. Conceptual phase
product-oriented activities can be summarized as:

• Gathering ideas.
• Assessing the ideas within the framework of the museum's mission, its
policies, and community needs.
• Selecting an exhibition for development.
•
Management-oriented activities include:
• Approving and scheduling the exhibition for development.
• Assessing available or potential resources.
•
The results of conceptual phase activities should be the scheduling of the
exhibition and the identification of the resources needed to present it.

Development phase

Exhibition development is a process aimed at realizing an idea - giving it flesh
and bones. Much of the energy of a staff will be directed toward product related
goals. However, management activities are essential as well. Management
duties center upon procurement, distribution, and regulation of resources.
This involves the following:
• time management
• money management
• quality control
• communication
• organizational control - assigning tasks
•
Neither product- nor management-oriented activities can function properly
without the other. It is the combined efforts of those people active in both areas
of endeavor that produce the result: the exhibition.

After the decision to develop an exhibition is made, ideas need to be
translated into actions moving toward realizable goals. The director decides
who to include in the planning process based on the requisite disciplines and
skills. Whether the project is accomplished by a team of several people, or by
only one or two individuals, the essential tasks remain the same. Only the scope
and breadth of the job changes based upon the time available to accomplish it.
In some instances, only one or two people are available, and tailoring the size
of the project to fit resources is necessary.

Normally, those roles required in product-oriented tasks include the curator,
educator, and designer. The curator or expert in the exhibition's subject
does research, provides scholarly information, and selects and curates the
appropriate collection objects. To guide interpretive planning and presentation,
a team member with an educational background and training is needed.
The educator advises about educational needs related to the design, develops
information for tours and programs, and provides training for docents and
guides. Another member is needed to translate the subject, objects, and ideas
mto visual form: the designer. The designer takes the information provided by
other team members and creates a plan for presenting it to the public.

From the management side, a person is needed to oversee and coordinate
planning and resources: a project manager. His or her purpose is to act as a
person who facilitates - who encourages communication, sees that information
and resources are available as needed, calls meetings and assigns tasks as
required, and acts as a mediator when necessary. Most often, this task is not
painful or stressful. However, the project manager needs to be an experienced
professional to handle difficulties if they arise. Attached to the project
manager's job may be periodic progress reports to the director or governing
authority.

Technical advisors may be required for complex or specialized activities. conservators may he consulted for collection management purposes.
Marketing specialists may be employed depending upon the scope of the
exhibition and the target audience. In effect, the exhibition planning team
should be configured to fit the need. The larger the team, the more complex
communication and consensus become. On the other hand, appropriate levels
of expertise should he included to do the job properly.

Planning stage

The planning stage sets the standards for building the final exhibition. Without
spending appropriate time and effort at this point, the rest of the
development process stands a good chance of being confusing at best, and
at worst, resulting in a poorly executed exhibition lacking in content and
direction.

Exhibition developers draw upon constituency surveys to determine the
exhibition's target group or groups. Developing and setting down exhibition
goals based upon a target audience will help clarify objectives. From these goals
flow an identifiable set of criteria against which later to rate exhibition
effectiveness.

After exhibition goals and objectives are established, the more concrete,
object-oriented work of research, script-writing, designing, and formulating
educahonal and promotional plans may proceed.

During the planning stage, management activities are critical and centered
around budgeting. Budgeting refers to the "Big Three": time, personnel and
money. These are essential to realizing exhibition goals. For example, giving
someone a task carries with it the responsibility to provide available time by
setting deadlines. When staff members are working in one place, they cannot
be elsewhere. In most museums, there are more jobs to accomplish than people
to do them. This makes time-budgeting an imperative for efficiently employing
skills and energies. However, without funding and procurement, work cannot
go forward. Cost estimates must be compiled, funding sources located and
secured, budgets set, and an accounting system created to keep track of funds
in a consistent and timely manner.

The result of all these activities is a plan of action for producing the exhibition.
The exhibition plan should include a timeline, a working budget, the storyline,
a conservation and maintenance schedule, design drawings and schematics, the
education goals and plans, and promotional or marketing strategies.


Production stage

The production stage is the time in an exhibition's cycle that involves the
greatest amount of activity, and requires the most coordination of efforts. At
this stage there are several product-oriented activities to be completed. They
include:

• An assessment by the curator or collection manager setting forth the level
of preliminary conservation required.
• A statement of requirements for the type and degree of support required I
and what environmental parameters are acceptable (light levels, relative
humidity, temperature, etc.).
• A schedule for rotating collection objects off exhibition, and a maintenance
plan.
• Negotiating and making arrangements for loans and contracts.
• Documenting the condition of the collection and its movement during the
objects' transfer from storage to exhibition.
• Making transportation arrangements for some objects or people as
required.
• Writing, checking, and preparing label, text, and title wording for
production.
• Fabrication activities - preparing mounting structures for collection objects,
preparing gallery space and environmental controls to meet specifications,
producing printed materials and graphic images, and the construction of xhibit cases and vitrines.
• Development of educational and public programs, including the preparation of printed instructional materials for the gallery or as pre- or post-visit
educational supplements. Other tasks might include preparing materials and
training docents, and coordinating with speakers and demonstrators.
• Promotional activities such as writing press releases, issuing press packets,
coordinating with media for press conferences or special photographic
sessions. Other activities might be designing and implementing publicity
strategies such as renting billboards, distributing posters or pamphlets, or
arranging for paid advertisements.
• Installing the exhibition - the act of actualizing or executing the exhibition
design. This includes erecting display structures such as walls and panels,
installing environmental monitoring devices, and placing support elements
and collection objects in the gallery space. Positioning way finders, labeling
objects, installing barriers, and providing instructions to security and maintenance
personnel for the proper care of the exhibition are necessary as
well.

Management activities during the production stage center on controlling the
availability of resources and keeping track of their use. This involves:

• Budgetary control and account maintenance during fabrication - making
purchases of construction materials and paying for services such as
construction and conservation activities.
• Progress control, requiring periodic checks, meetings, and reports as
necessary to determine the status of the project.
• Quality checks are needed to ensure that predetermined standards are met.
• Administrative activities, including expenditure approvals, approval
and monitoring of changes, and providing appropriate personnel
management.

Functional phase
After the exhibition is open to the public, it enters the functional phase. Under
this heading are two stages. The first is the operational stage, which includes
the daily activities of running and managing the exhibition.

Operational stage

Product-oriented activities include:

• Operating the exhibition, which might involve ticketing and admissions
procedures. Also of major importance are the maintenance of the gallery
and collections, seeing to the security and safety of staff and visitors, and
monitoring conservation factors.
• Implementing the programs, tours, lectures, demonstrations, and any extramuseum
activities such as trunk exhibits and outreach programs.
Evaluation activities such as visitor surveys, pre- and post-visit
questionnaires, informal observations, and related tasks. These need to be
generated while the exhibition is functioning to provide data so that the
exhibition's success or failure can be assessed at a later date.

Operational stage management activities include:

• Settling accounts.
• Administration of personnel and services.
The result of the operational stage should be the accomplishment of the
educational objectives set forth during planning. The prime outcome from a
collection management standpoint is to ensure that no significant deterioration
occurs in the collection objects while they are on exhibit.

Terminating stage

Following the operational stage and concluding the exhibition's public life are
activities that may be called the terminating stage. Product-oriented activities
include:

• Dismantling the exhibition.
• Documenting the transfer of collection objects back to storage.
• Packing collection objects for return to lending institutions or for sending
on to the next venue.

Terminating stage management activities involve:

• Balancing accounts to assess the proper use of funds and for reporting to
granting agencies.

The results are that the exhibition is ended, collections are returned to their
proper places, and galleries are cleared and made ready for the next exhibition.

Assessment phase

The final and an extremely important phase in exhibition development has
to do with assessment. Evaluation is increasingly useful to museums for
determining whether or not goals set early in the process were indeed
accomplished. The process of assessment also serves to point the way to future
exhibitions, improvements in methods and technologies, strategies, and goalsetting. Evaluation, too, is both product- and management-oriented.
Product-oriented activities are:

• Assessment of the exhibition from a product point-of-view. Determining
how well the exhibition accomplished the educational and public goals set
for it, how extensively it was visited and utilized, and whether or not the
maintenance activities were adequate to protect the collections.
• Determining the success of the process in planning and executing the
exhibition, or process assessment.

Assessment management activities include:

• The production of an evaluation report that sets down the findings of the
product and process assessments.
• The preparation of an evaluation report - some granting agencies require
such a report to assess the proper use and effectiveness of their funding.
The outcome of the assessment phase is to document the evaluation with a
written report. However, the real value of assessment is improving the product
and process for the next exhibition, and the engendering of new ideas for the
future.

2
Audiences and learning




People and museums
People are the only reason for museums to exist. It may appear simplistic and
obvious to say so, but that fact is sometimes overlooked in the day-to-day
process of operating a museum. Everything museological revolves around the
human race. Therefore, an understanding of human learning - or at least the
basis for educated guessing - is useful for developing exhibitions that serve
audience needs.

Knowing who the people are that museums serve has become a quest of the later
part of the twentieth century. "Know your audience and market accordingly."
This statement might well be the watchword of museums today, though some
might not view it in quite such materialistic and commercial terms. However, even
the most altruistic of museum professionals must acknowledge that knowing for
whom the museum is being operated helps in planning exhibitions.

Of all the factors affecting decision-making in museums, the audience is the
least understood and most frustrating. This is because people are themselves
complex and unpredictable. We humans have managed to amass some
information about how we function physically, physiologically, and emotionally.
This knowledge can be valuable to the museum planner who wants to
attract and hold an audience by providing meaningful experiences.

Much of the knowledge now available to museum professionals flows
naturally from the art and science of education, which, in turn, derives many
of its understandings from the fields of medicine and psychology. It is
reasonable to apply such knowledge to museums because they are, at the core,
educational institutions. Understanding how people learn and their
requirements for having profitable educational experiences has proven to be of
great help to museum exhibitors. Often such information assists in explaining
observed, but puzzling human behaviors in museums (i.e., the need to touch,
the tendency to avoid some galleries and to be irresistibly drawn to others, and
the apparently positive response to some stimuli and the relative indifference
toward others). Always, an understanding of audience needs and expectations
will enhance both the process and the product of exhibitions.

Targeting audiences
Anticipating visitor needs and tendencies demands a clear notion of which
groups to apply resources toward attracting. Museums should always he open
to identifying and attracting new audiences, those beyond their existing
visitorship. Awareness of community attitudes and expectations should be an
ongoing process. As this base of information grows, and other factors such as
demographics, educational levels, and economic stresses within a society
change, a museum staff needs to evaluate its visitorship periodically. Self-examination to decide upon future audience development is a healthy process
for museums. Community awareness and self-evaluation lead to identifying
groups of individuals who are linked by common threads such as culture,
leisure preferences, fields of study, ethnic or social affiliations, disabilities,
socio-economic levels, and so forth. Any identifiable sub-group within a
community is potentially a museum target audience. It is through careful study
that responsible decisions about committing precious museum resources to
reaching any new group are made.

Building a reliable, comprehensive profile of the community will assist in
determining target audiences, their needs, and their expectations. Valuable
methods of gathering this information include:

• Close examination of existing demographic and psychographic analyses,
usually obtainable at chambers of commerce, and from commercial and
governmental agencies.

• Interviewing individuals, civic groups and leaders.
• Forming and listening to focus groups from various community segments.
•
A decision to proceed with targeting any special group needs to be based upon
two principal concerns:

• The belief that a benefit is attainable by the audience from the museum.
• The probable effectiveness of efforts to attract and hold a target audience.
•
Categorizing people, even into general groups, is an undertaking charged
with problems and pitfalls, such as stereotyping, labeling, and unfair biasing.
Museums are, or should be, one of the most democratic of institutions within
any society, showing no preference or prejudice toward anyone, and serving the
good of all. However, it is imperative to make practical judgments about
the allocation of limited resources. Therefore, using objective criteria and
recognizing the possibility of bias can allow some careful, helpful classification
of people.

Two rational models may help provide a general summary of communities
while avoiding unnecessarily subjective assessments. These are Arnold's Values
and Lifestyles Segments (VALS) model (Figure 2.1), and Maslow's Hierarchy of
Human Needs (Figure 2.2).






There are portions of any population that are chiefly preoccupied with a struggle
to survive -to provide food, clothing, and shelter for themselves and their
families. The Values and Lifestyles Segments index identifies these as Sustainers
and Survivors. They are people whose incomes are irregular, or small and fixed.
The intensely poor, the homeless, and some elderly fit into these groups. There
is a clear ethical and moral responsibility for museums to seek to serve these
audiences. Usually the approach must be done outside the museum walls, in the
community at large. In the streets, in the schools, and through outreach programs
Sustainers and Survivors can be affected. However, well-intended efforts
to persuade people in desperate circumstances to spend time at the museum can
have negative rather than positive results.
Maslow's hierarchical list of needs asserts that meeting basic requirements for sustaining human life must come before any person will have either the energy, will, or time to pursue cultural enrichment history, art, and the sciences have little
meaning when the here-and-now struggle to survive fully occupies one's attention.

On the other hand are the people who regularly come to the museum. They
come often and require little in the way of enticement. The reasons for their
interest in museums are varied, but such patrons are ordinarily fairly well
educated and do not lack basic human resources. However, great wealth is by
no means a given.

The segments between these two levels are where the museum audience
challenge exists: the non-participants and occasional visitors. That challenge is
to persuade people who have basic resources that the museum is a worthwhile,
enriching, and even fun place to spend their leisure time.

The special circumstances of some segments of the population with special
requirements may also suggest target audiences. For example, older citizens are
a rapidly increasing segment of most societies and have their own concerns and
prerequisites. Problems such as transportation limitations, the dislike for going
places alone, reluctance to venture out at night, limited visual acuity, and
feeling uncomfortable with unfamiliar situations influence visitation by senior
citizens. People with visual, hearing, and mobility disabilities also have special
needs and should be considered as target audiences too.

Museums are making efforts to serve all of these and other groups. Some
endeavors include:

• tactile exhibits for persons with visual disabilities
• docent guided tours
• audiovisual devices
• day-time special activities
• transportation options
• exploration activities
• docents with sign-language capabilities
• emphasis on first-hand experience
• demonstrations

All of these are ways to afford special audiences effective and rewarding
museum experiences.

The point is that various perceptions and circumstances combine to keep
people away from museums. When targeting an audience, one must be sensitive
to such concerns, work around the negatives, and meet needs positively and
creatively. Such efforts will, in fact, improve the visit for everyone.

Motivations

People have reasons for choosing one type of leisure activity over another.
Consciously or not, they are looking for certain kinds of places, people, or
activities that meet personal criteria. Since individuals differ, the criteria differ.
However, there are some commonly held motivations that humans focus on
when deciding about pastimes. Marilyn Hood lists six criteria that adults use
in making such choices They are:

• being with people, or social interaction
• doing something worthwhile
• having the challenge of new experiences
• having an opportunity to learn
• participating actively
• feeling comfortable and at ease in one's surroundings
•
Social needs probably play the largest role. Most museum visitors prefer to
visit with a family member, a friend, or as part of a group.

The value of the visit, its challenges, and the educational opportunities
provided are aspects of the design and content of the exhibition itself. These
must be pre-planned and built into the presentations. Also, the interactive
aspect of exhibitions relates to predetermined goals and execution. However,
feeling comfortable is a broader matter. It involves the total museum experience
for the visitor.

What kind of environment is a museum? Is it like a school, a library, a
supermarket, an amusement park, or an arcade? Museums share characteristics
with all of these, but perhaps the most significant aspect is informality. Even in
what might be considered stodgy or stuffy museums, the informal nature of the
experience is inescapable. There is no compulsion - no force allowed, needed,
or wanted - in a museum visit. With the possible exception of school and
guided tours, visitors can do as they wish within reason. They can learn at their
own pace, in their own way, or not at all if they choose.

A patron will react negatively to an environment in which he or she is not
physically or intellectually comfortable. If one feels uncomfortable then
exit-oriented behavior or avoidance is probable. Comfort is an essential
criterion for motivating people to visit museums. It demands that a museum
provide its visitors with an informal, comfortable environment for a beneficial
learning experience.

Comfort is the state of being at ease in one's surroundings and with the demands
of the environment. Situations or circumstances that cause emotional or physical
stress are uncomfortable. However, many pastimes involve a degree of
physical discomfort. Playing games such as baseball, racquetball, soccer, or footballcan bring about a considerable level of physical distress. Participation
in games of chance, volunteering to help those with disabilities, or even reading
a hook can cause emotional agitation. Yet, people will enthusiastically and
repeatedly pursue even those leisure activities that involve profound discomfort.

This illustrates that there are acceptable and unacceptable forms of discomfort.
There are those that people will avoid almost without exception. Most
will select leisure activities that include positive interaction and involve very
little fear of failure. Leisure activities need to create a sense of affirmation
for the participant. Activities that engender feelings of inferiority, insecurity,
intimidation, or embarrassment will he avoided. For many people, a
museum is that kind of place. The facilities appear cold and formal, and the
exhibitions are perceived as requiring a high level of education and extreme
effort to grasp. No one enjoys feelings of inadequacy in understanding or
appreciating the exhibitions presented for them.

In choosing an activity for breaks from daily labors, people will pick those
that make them feel welcome, appreciated, provided for, and adequate - in
short, places and activities that are enjoyable and worthwhile. Museums have
come a long way in attempting to present an interesting, comfortable face
to the public. However, way finders, information desks, air-conditioning,
and friendly guards will not help if the visitor feels intimidated by the content
and language of the exhibits. He or she will fear appearing foolish or dull-witted,
and after spending a brief time will leave the museum, perhaps never to
return.

It is a commonly held belief, by many museum professionals, that visitors do
not read labels, will not look at objects, do not change their views or attitudes,
and continually look for the exit. If such an attitude is found in museum staffs,
how adequate can their efforts he to make exhibitions attractive to visitors? In
fact, most visitors are looking for positive, meaningful experiences in museums.
If they fail to find that sort of atmosphere, they may not be back.

Museum exhibitions ought to offer answers to the questions visitors want
answered. Questions about how things work, how events occurred, and what
people and the world were like long ago. Exhibitions offer the chance to look
at and experience the "real thing." They arouse and satisfy curiosity, leading to
continued and growing interests.


Learning and museum exhibitions

Satisfying expectations and stimulating curiosity bring people to museums and
persuade them to return. Levels of visitor interest vary widely. The degree of
success in capturing patrons' interest depends upon how well an exhibition
catches their attention.

There are three basic types of museum visitor. There is overlap between these
generalizations, and some people will exhibit one type of behavior at one time
and in one museum, and another somewhere else. It can be helpful to look at
these groupings as an intellectual exercise. They form a framework to think
about the various levels of information that exhibitions need to present, because
not every visitor looks at every part of an exhibition.

First, there are those people who move through a gallery quickly and display
exit-oriented behavior. They are often casual visitors using their leisure time
to participate in what they consider a worthwhile activity without becoming
heavily involved. They may be persons with a psychological aversion to
structured situations. Yet again, they may be persons who wish to be seen
as appreciating "cultural" activities, but who do not truly appreciate the
opportunities afforded them. Whatever the motivation, these people spend very
little time closely examining exhibit objects or content.

The second group, on the other hand, are those who show a genuine interest in
the museum experience and the collections. However, they ordinarily do not
spend much time reading, especially texts that appear difficult or require too
much effort to understand. These people prefer a casual, headline approach to
information display. They respond strongly to situations that offer visual
stimuli. The objects are the main focus of attention. Having absorbed what they
consider to be adequate superficial information from an object, they move on
in search of further stimulus. Occasionally, the cursory visitor will stop and
examine something closely if it arouses sufficient curiosity and interest. This
attention is sporadically and erratically given throughout the galleries.

The people in the third group are a minority. These are folks who will
examine exhibitions with much more attention. They are willing, and usually
able, to understand presented materials no matter how technical. They spend
an abundance of time in the galleries, read the text and labels, and closely
examine the objects. They are often frequent visitors to museums and require
little enticement to come.

Why do some rush through exhibitions and others stroll or study? These
behaviors have to do with how people are equipped to and prefer to gain
knowledge. Training, prior experiences, and educational level affect the ease
with which a person assimilates knowledge. However, it is the capability
of exhibitions to capture visitor attention that most dramatically influences
learning effectiveness. If attention is focused upon a subject, object, or activity,
the chances are good that learning will take place.

Most people prefer active participation over passive observation. That
is because, although humans are primarily visual creatures, the other senses
reinforce what is gained by sight. For example, the visual aspects of a sculpture
immediately elicit a desire to touch it. The touching reinforces, confirms,
and adds to the information gained through the eyes. This is why museums,
weighing the obligation to expose collections to public scrutiny against
the responsibility to care for the objects, are often contradictory learning
environments. "Do not touch" signs are psychologically offensive because they
deny basic human learning behavior.

The way to address such conflicting missions lies with how humans gather,
process, and store information. People have three principal means of gathering
information, through:
•
Words - language, both heard and read, requires the most effort and
mental processing to extract meaning.
• Sensations - taste, touch, smell, hearing are more immediate and
associative.
• Images - visual stimulus is the strongest, most memorable of the methods.
•
A large percentage of the information gathered by humans is visual. People
process incoming images in six basic ways. These are:

• pattern seeking and recognition;
• mentally rotating objects in space;
• identifying dynamic structures, or mentally constructing movement capacities of objects;
• orthographic imagination or mentally constructing three-dimensional
objects from two-dimensional representations such as maps or schematics;
• x-ray visualization or visualizing relationships as though one could see
through objects;
• visual reasoning or imagining actionlreaction events.
•
When an exhibition induces a person to engage in one or more of these mental
operations, attention is arrested for a moment and interest is generated.
Conroy of the Anniston Museum of Natural History suggests that people are
affected by certain characteristics of objects:

• larger objects produce longer viewing times
• moving objects produce longer viewing times
• novel or special objects attract more attention
• certain qualities of objects are more intrinsically interesting (e.g., dangerous
objects, baby animals, valuable objects)

Although vision is the principal sense, what people perceive through whole sensoryexperience is retained far better than that gained through sight alone.
A person will remember more about what he or she does.

The solutions to exhibition design would be relatively simple if the only factors
were those already mentioned. Those are aspects of the patron that, with some
degree of thought and skill, can be affected with an anticipated level of success.
However, there is at least one aspect of visitor psyche that is unpredictable from
an exhibit design point of reference - worldview.

Design is dramatically affected by the perceptions of the visitor. No matter how
clever the designer is and no matter how adroit the manipulation of learning
factors, the patron's worldview will color every perception.

Worldview is a personal, cognitive (rational) structure or model of the world
composed of how the person sees him- or herself, and how he or she views
reality. A few of the factors that influence one's worldview are:

• culture
• religion
• physiology
• psychology
• socio-economic status
• race and ethnic background
•
The foundations for building the cognitive structure are:

• facts as they are perceived
• concepts, propositions
• theories, generalizations
• raw perceptual data
•
In fact, everything a person sees, feels, hears, touches, smells, or tastes has an
effect on their worldview. Even if those influences are subconscious, they have
very real effects on conscious thought.

One's worldview forms the filter through which incoming information is:

• evaluated (value judgments)
• anticipated (pre-judgments and prejudices)
• interpreted (processed for meaning)
Every visitor enters the museum with a personalized set of preconceived data
and expectations. If what they encounter is unfamiliar or cannot be readily
fitted to their worldview, they will be diffident and uncomfortable. Such
reactions may effectively close the door on further communication. When
confronted with an object with little interpretation, that is seemingly
arbitrarily controversial, or one presented in a scholarly, technical manner, most
visitors will avoid it and move on.

What, then, is the answer to the unpredictable nature of visitor reactions?
In exhibit design, sensitivity to community attitudes, codes, conventions, and
traditions must be part of the equation. An effective means of gaining a
visitor's attention and cooperation is to preface an exhibition with something
familiar and easily assimilated. If this is done, then new information can follow.
When presented in easily digestible bits, virtually any degree of difficulty in
subject matter can be addressed.

Recognizable activities (life cycles, everyday functions or objects) and human
relationships (family, sibling rivalries, children, home activities, pets) are
the kinds of subjects with which most people immediately identify and feel
comfortable. Familiarity with an image or situation evokes memories. This
leads to recognition, interest, curiosity, and subsequently, learning.
In addition to familiarity or recognition, an exhibition must provide a context
or framework in which objects exist. Memories are stored as frameworks,
patterns, and associations. Facts are not remembered for long as isolated units.
When they are fitted into a framework of references, they form lasting
impressions.

Also affecting the efficacy of learning is the physiology of the human brain, or
braln function. The human brain is in reality two separate brains linked by way
of a communication network. They are called the right and left brains, and their
functions are different and complementary. Individuals learn in markedly
differing manners depending upon the degree of dominance by one side or the
other in their thought processes.




The left brain is normally dominant. This side:

• translates perceptions into logical, semantic, and phonetic images;
• communicates via logic-analytical processing;
• controls language and reasoning, reading, writing, counting, and digital
communication.

The right brain acts in a more holistic manner. This half:

• discerns integral understanding of complex patterns and structures -
intuition;
• perceives the whole context (gestalt) from bits and pieces;
a responds to images, not verbal language;
• contains a holistic worldview;
• is appealed to directly through jokes, pictures, sounds, smells, touch
(cartoons are effective because of this).

Most formal education is organized around cognitive learning (meanings,
functions, concepts, reasons, formulae, definitions). These are left brain
activities. Schools in western cultures are structured with these rational
functions. However, coupling left brain analysis with right brain imaging
can promote faster, more rewarding, and more effective learning. By aiming
exhibit design at a complementary employment of both sides of the brain,
learning can be enhanced.

The right brain can draw associations from suggestions and fragmentary
images. A cowboy hat or boots can evoke complex images of the American
West into a storyline. The right brain allows one to provide a whole reality from
a few pieces. This we call intuition. Therein also lies a danger since the conjured
reality may be erroneously based on misconceived notions. Associations
from the cowboy hat may lead one to formulate the false reality of the movie
star image. This contradicts the true image of the hard-working, underpaid
cowhand of history.

Museums offer real objects - the ideal diet for whole brain activity. Collections
provide right brain appeal coupled with left brain cognition. This is why
museums are vital alternative, complementary learning environments for
schools and others who gain information primarily through spoken or printed
material.
Conclusions

How can the above topics be integrated into an exhibition design methodology?
Here are some suggestions:

• Museums are people places. They should make every effort to afford visitors
with comfortable, rewarding experiences. Way finders, adequate facilities,
and public-oriented exhibitions will help people feel that they belong and
give them a sense of ownership.

• Examining the community is necessary. Museums must take the initiative
to evaluate, identify, and actively pursue audiences previously overlooked.
• Exhibitions should capitalize on their strengths as places for personal
encounters with collection objects. It is the appeal of the "real thing" that
brings most people to museums.
• Imagery and exhibit elements that contain recognizable features, symbols,
and associations will assist in audience retention. Rely upon community
values and traditions to assist in gaining audience attention. Appeal to the
human interest elements in images to gain visitor confidence in their own
ability to understand the subject matter.
• Use strong visual impact to "hook" visitor curiosity. Bright colors, large
graphics, varied shapes, and similar visual elements will attract a visitor's
attention.
• Use graphics that tell stories and engage visitors in mental activities.
Activate the visuaVmenta1 manipulative capability of the human brain by
asking questions and providing demonstrations.
• Arrange objects in contextual settings. Provide a framework for objects that
will assist the visitor in learning about them. Extend the framework along
the storyline to lend continuity to the whole exhibition.
• Use sensory stimuli - sound, smell, touch, taste - to reinforce visual images.
Whenever possible, use all the senses, but always try to involve at least two
or three.
• Weave the cognitive, didactic elements of the storyline into the contextual
framework and imagery of the whole exhibition.
a When writing text, labels, and audio narration, use language that evokes
mental imagery. Without becoming trite or offensive, use word pictures
instead of technical language.






3
Designing exhibitions







Designing museum exhibitions is the art and science of arranging the visual,
spatial, and material elements of an environment into a composition that
visitors move though. This is done to accomplish pre-established goals. The
presentation of exhibitions in museums should never be haphazard or left to
chance. Although planning can be overdone for almost any project, quality
museum exhibitions require a high degree of development and design to serve
I the public properly. Design decisions should be deliberate and calculated, and
executed to achieve maximum effect. Though a certain degree of serendipity
plays a role, relying upon it too heavily is a mistake. A well-founded
knowledge of design basics can foster an organized approach to exhibition
design.

Certain elements of design are fundamental to all visual arts. An introduction
to these elements is helpful in understanding why some arrangements work -
that is, they fulfill their intended function - while others do not. When a
composition works, it is usually comfortable to the eye, even if the subject
matter may not he. However, when design fails, people will react negatively,
regardless of how beautiful or important the contents are.

Naming the key elements of design varies, depending upon the person naming
and their interests. However, there are six main elements. These are:

• value
• color
• texture
• balance
• line
• shape

Value
Value is the quality of lightness or darkness, having no reference specifically
to color. Areas that are black have the lowest value; areas that are white, the
highest. All the infinite stages between are varying degrees or shades of value.




Values are associated with visual weight characteristics. Normally, darker
values are attributed the quality of heaviness; lighter shades are expressed
as lighter in weight. For design purposes, values are important for emphasis,
orientation, and attraction/repulsion. Judicious combining of value with the
other design elements can dramatically affect the visual impact. Value is
controlled by pigment, surface treatment, and lighting.


Color

Color is an extensive subject. To attempt to cover all aspects of color would be
inappropriate in this context. However, addressing basic principles is fitting.
Few substances are entirely without color. Some may appear colorless or monochromatic,
but all influence light in some way. Color requires both the physical
characteristics of light energy and the action of the human brain. Colors are
perceived through the filter of perception and are ascribed meanings.

Consider the physical properties of color. Light is a form of electromagnetic
energy or radiation, the result of applying energy to a substance like a tungsten
filament, a candle, or a fluorescent gas. In all cases, the consequence of energizing
the materials is the emission of waveslparticles called photons. We call this light.
The speed at which the photons travel or vibrate is referred to as their frequency.
There are an infinite number of frequencies, but the human eye recognizes only a
small band. This narrow collection of frequencies is known as the visible light
spectrum (VLS), or simply visible light. Above and below the visible band are
frequencies of radiation we know as heat, ultraviolet, radio, microwave, and
many others.

Light travels through space basically in a straight line from its source until it
reaches an obstruction - like an object. All substances influence the energy
that reaches them. Light that reaches the eye affects the receptors in the retina
directly. Light that reaches another object first, then finds its way to the eye,
may undergo several changes in direction and speed. Light triggers visual
sensors in the retina of the eyeball. These generate a series of messages that are
sent through the optic nerve to the visual enters of the brain. There the signals
are given a name - a color.

There are several energy changes that substances may cause when light strikes
them. In most cases, more than one form of energy transaction takes place.
Photons are reflected from a surface, transmitted through a material, refracted
by having the wavelengths split and redirected, or absorbed and changed
into heat or chemical energy. The whole process of reflection, refraction,
transmission, and absorption dictates what wavelengths ,of light reach the
retina, thus determining the colors perceived.

Colors have many characteristics. Various substances are known to produce a
desired color consistently. We call them pigments. Some pigments are naturally
occurring while others are artificial in origin. However, the basis of all pigment produced colors is three primary colors - red, yellow, and blue. By mixing the
primaries, all other colors are produced.



Excepting black and white, mixing pigments produces increasingly muddy
colors. This is a process of increasing the absorptive properties of the
pigment mix. When virtually all frequencies of the light are absorbed, little or
none of it arrives at the eye, resulting in perceived blackness. White is at the
other end of the pigment scale. It is a pigment that reflects and mixes all
wavelengths.

Direct methods of stimulating vision with lighting devices seem to contradict
the previous statements. Mixing all wavelengths of color produces white.
Actually, the same process is operating. Mixing all wavelengths of light
together is the same as reflecting them all. The resulting mixture is what we
perceive as white.

On the other hand, as with total absorption, when all wavelengths are
prevented from reaching the eye, the result is blackness. The lights go out.
No matter how light energy is produced or how it is affected by objects,
the human brain is the interpreter. Characteristics attributed to color relate to
associations. The colors from the yellow middle of the visible spectrum to red
are "warm." This is probably because the radiation frequencies below red in
the spectrum are sensed as heat. At the other end, toward blue, the colors are
referred to as "cool." This end is most distant from heat. It is associated with
the coolness and blueness of the sky, ice, water, and other naturally cool
substances and conditions.

Other characterizations are cultural, varying broadly depending upon
the worldview of an individual. In this century, pink and blue signify female
and male gender, respectively. However, a century ago in the United States,
the reverse was true. White may stand for purity in one culture, grief or
death in another, and magical properties in yet another. Black, red, green,
and many other colors have cultural meanings as well. Some are quite
complex. Color-induced meanings are usually laden with emotional impact.
In language colors signify emotions, too. Blue means sadness or depression,
green represents envy, and red signifies anger. Cultures vary in these kinds
of associations as well.


Texture

Texture is the visual roughness or smoothness of a surface. In two-dimensional
images no actual surface variations may exist, yet by varying
the density of pigments, quality of line, and strength or weakness of values,
the surface may appear to have a "toothiness." Texture may also result from
the actual treatment of a surface and have a tactile dimension as well.


Balance
Balance is the quality of visual weight distribution. When images or objects
are arranged symmetrically - items of equal size and weight match across a
mid-point - they are in symmetrical balance. When they are arranged so
no equivalents exist, the composition is asymmetrical. Balance can be either
formal or informal. Between symmetry and asymmetry are infinite variations
of balance. Typically, symmetry is formal composition. On the other hand,
asymmetry is informal.

Balance does not always employ object balanced against object. Another way
is to balance an object (a positive element) against a non-object (a negative
element - space). Adept use of negative space can dramatically enhance the
visual interest of a composition, while producing a comfortable balance.



Line
Line is the quality of linearity. A line is a string of points with little or no space
between them and next to each other to lead the eye and thus suggest direction.
Line gives a strong directional content to composition. It can vary in strength,
density, width, and other qualities. These impart characteristics, add textural
qualities, affect visual weight, imply directionality, show containment, and
delineate space.


Shape
Shape is the element of physical or spatial containment. It is the composite
of all points forming the internal or external surface of a composition. Both
two- and three-dimensional shapes are everywhere and infinite in variety. Some
are geometrical and hard-edged, like squares, cubes, rectangles, triangles,
circles, and cylinders. Others are softer, more curvilinear, as are living
organisms. These are called organic shapes. Contrasting, joining, overlapping,
and mixing shapes adds important visual interest to any composition. The
juxtaposition of organic and geometric shapes can accentuate the qualities of
both.

These design elements can be expanded upon much more. There are ample
references that can provide further information. The essential properties of each
element need to be understood by the designer. By using both experimental
and traditional combinations of the design elements, compositions are built.
Careful thought will produce useful designs, but intuitive leaps of imagination
often inspire the most exceptional compositions. The keys are to experiment
and observe.

Human factors in exhibition design

The human being is a design factor that influences and relates to all other
composition-related considerations. Fundamentally, human beings have only
one archetype with minor variations in size, weight, features, and the like. The
basic model includes a main section (trunk), appendages (arms and legs) and a
head. These are symmetrically organized along the mid-line of a spinal column.
Variations in girth, height, length of foot, and hat-size are relatively minor,
no matter how important they may be to a person's self-image. The largest
variations in size exist between youth and adulthood. There is roughly a
162 percent increase in height from age 5 to 20. In contrast, the difference in
average height between adult males and females is less than 1 percent. Most
people fit into the chart on p. 41. Those persons with speciaI needs add other
dimensions to the data. General measurements have been provided for persons
in wheelchairs, since these devices add significantly to a person's spatial
requirements.










What do these human dimensions tell the designer about involving people in
learning experiences? People feel most at ease in spaces that allow Lreedom of
movement without feeling either overly confined or exposed. This relates to a
sense of scale - human scale. We relate space to ourselves as the fixed unit
of measurement. Ceiling heights in most homes are between 9 and 12 ft,
providing space to raise our arms above our beads, but low enough to feel
comfortable. Spaces intended to be impressive or awe-inspiring are normally
much larger and higher. Think of places such as churches, cathedrals, banks,
I public buildings, and business centers. The larger the space, the smaller the
I individual appears by contrast. Being lost in a vast space carries the emotional
sensation of being less able to control the environment. The less control a
person has, the more impressive, awe-inspiring the space becomes.

On the other hand, spaces that are small and tight engender crowded,
oppressive, smothering feelings. Many people have negative associations with
such responses. The minimum comfortable space is defined by the room to
swing one's arms outstretched side to side. The significance and usefulness of
this factor in exhibit design vary depending upon the intended impact of the
space. An intimate exhibition requires less room than does a grandiose one.

The implications of human response to space and the means by which we
gather information become clearer as they relate to behavioral tendencies. Some
of these behaviors are familiar to designers and have developed into some
practical guidelines.

Touching

People have an innate predisposition for touching, both as a sensory and
experiential confirmation of what they see, and as memory reinforcement. If
objects or surfaces are within reach, they will be touched. Erecting barriers to
separate the viewer physically from the object is possible, of course. However,
this is sometimes undesirable for design reasons. Spatial separation can protect
without creating tesentment. If the objects are out of reach, they are outside the
touch behavior. Younger children have not learned the social conventions and
must be physically prevented from touching to ensure collection safety.

Entry response

People will normally use the largest opening when presented with a choice, and
all other factors are roughly equal. This is entry response. When entering a new
and largely unknown space, larger and well lit is better. It is less intimidating
and leaves more room for exploring what is ahead.

Viewing height

People are most comfortable and will spend more time looking and reading
when printed materials and objects are comfortably placed. They should be
positioned so the center of the material is at eye-level. For adults, average height
is around 5 ft 3 in (1.6 m). The field of vision forms a cone beginning at the
eyes and extending 40" above and below the horizontal axis. Distance from the
object increases or decreases the comfortable viewing area within the cone.
Placing objects or graphics outside the cone leads to difficulty in viewing and
fatigue. The space outside the cone of vision can be used for large, bold
elements, but should be avoided for detailed ones.








Sitting or leaning
People will sit on any surface that is at or near a comfortable height, and close
to horizontal. If anything is a suitable height, people will prop their feet on it
or lean on it. These actions are automatic and without thought, often in
response to fatigue.

Space, as perceived by humans, has emotional associations as well as physical
ones. Various kinds of space evoke suitable and largely predictable emotional
responses. This can be helpful in design. For instance, to promote the close viewing of small objects, a space that is smaller, more dimly lit, and in which important objects are highlighted invites scrutiny and stimulates curiosity. A small
object in a large hall may appear insignificant. The same object in a more intimate
space becomes important and focal. The reverse is also true, and all the variations between have proper applications depending on the objects displayed.







3.12 Spatial relationships
(a) Cool and formal
(b) Intimate and warm
High ceilings, uniform flooring, general lighting, and light-colored wall treatments impart an impression of cool formality to a gallery. Lowered ceiling and textured flooring, along with low, directed lighting, lend a space a feeling of intimacy and warmth.

We can say that space may be defined in terms of the emotional responses
aroused, as below:

• formal or informal
• a cold or warm
• a masculine or feminine
• a iublico r private
• a awesome or intimate
• a graceful or vulgar
•
Not only do people react to the space around them, but also each carries a sense
of space with him or her as an extension of the body and psyche. There are
discernible behaviors associated with this portable space.


Personal space

Personal space is delineated by the span of one's reach, and is a reaction to the
approach of persons outside one's intimates. Although a friend, family member,
or spouse may be allowed within one's personal space, strangers and acquaintances
are expected to keep a proper distance. In some societies, this space may
be more compact than in others through necessity. This is seen in persons from
crowded metropolitan areas. However, when personal space is perceived as
violated, an individual will react either to repel or to move away from the
offender. Both responses create discomfort and negative feelings. Applying this
principle in a gallery context means giving visitors enough room to maintain
their personal space when around others viewing the same exhibit.

Another form of space is territorial. Territorial space is a three-dimensional area
over which an individual exercises control, such as an office or bedroom.

A primary form of spatial relationship is transactional space. This is where
people carry on varied activities while in the presence of each other. Within
transactional space are a set of sub-spaces delineated by the kinds of activities
that occur in them. They are:

• distributional spaces
• collecting spaces
• transitional spaces
•
Areas where people enter and exit on the way to other places are distributional
spaces. Places like corridors and lobbies are distributional in nature.

Rooms or areas where people gather or meet for a common purpose are
collecting spaces. Examples are classrooms and auditoriums.

Transitional spaces are those through which people move from one place to
another, such as atria and doorways.

Transactional spaces are common in museums and thus are important to the
designer. Recognizing the nature of an area helps in planning with or around
its inherent characteristics.





3.13 Illustrations of spaces each other.
(a) Collection spaces
(b) Distributional space
(c) Transitional spaces
Theaters and classrooms are collecting ilacesL. obbies and hallways are distributional spaces. Vestibules and entryways act as transitional areas to facilitate movement from one kind of space to another.

Behavioral tendencies
Among human beings there are shared behavioral tendencies. In some cases,
typical behavior is modified by cultural or societal preferences. To create effects,
move people, and attract attention it is normally wiser to play upon natural
tendencies, rather than oppose them. Some of these shared behaviors are
discussed in the following descriptions.




• Turning to the right
Most people tend to favor turning to the right if all other factors are equal.
A possible explanation is that this relates to the dominance of righthandedness
in humans.
• Following the right wall
Once moving to the right, most people will stay to the right, leaving
exhibits on the left less viewed.
• Stopping at the first exhibit on the right side
The first exhibit area on the right gets the most attention. Conversely, the
first one on the left gets less notice.
• Stopping at the first exhibit rather than the last
Due to fatigue and the nearness of an exit, more interest is concentrated at
the beginning of an exhibition than at the end.
• Exhibits closest to exits are least viewed
The closer people are to an exit, the more they are drawn to it, and the less
attention is given to the exhibits.
• Preference for visible exits
Perhaps this behavior is a result of a subconscious desire to avoid traps. It
is expressed as a reluctance to enter an area without visible exits.
• Shortest route preference
Exhibits along the shortest route to the exit receive the largest amount of
attention.
• Lining up furniture around edges of rooms
Particularly in western cultures this is a tendency, though not a rule. Most
often the center of the room is left as a transactional area. Oriental cultures
tend to focus more on the center of the room.
• Square corners preference
Western cultures typically build with corners and angles rather than curves.
• Preference for right-angles and 45" angles
Most western cultures arrange walls and furniture at 90" or 45' angles to each other.
• Reading from left to right, top to bottom
This is a language-dependent phenomenon. Asian languages often reverse
or even overturn this convention. In western languages, right to left, top to
bottom is a normal progression for viewing any object or graphic.
• Aversion to darkness
Humans lack the acute night vision of many species. We are typically daylight
creatures. Due to the inability to determine the contents and sizes in the
dark, people avoid such places. Fear of the unknown as a survival reflex is
probably the root motivation.
• Chromaphilic behavior
Bright colors are visually engaging to most people. Although a person may
not prefer bright hues, their eyes are drawn to the more brightly colored
object or area.
• Megaphilic behavior
Similar to chromaphilia, largeness is visually stimulating. People react first
to larger objects when they enter a space.
• Photophilic behavior
Also related to chromaphilia, most people react more positively toward
areas of brighter illumination. This is probably linked to avoidance of
darkness.
• Exhibit fatigite
Mental and physical over-stimulation or over-exertion creates a common
condition called exhibit fatigue.
• Thirty-minute limit
The average maximum attention span for an adult audience is thirty
minutes.
• Larger type is read nrore
The larger and bolder the type graphically, the more attention it attracts.
Conversely, areas of smaller text appear difficult, too technical, and are
usually passed over.


Methodologies and design strategies

All the tendencies, attitudes, and responses addressed so far have a definite
impact upon the design process. Ways of using this knowledge suggest
themselves. If a gallery is not constructed in a way that permits normal
tendencies and responses to occur, they must be compensated by alternative
behavior. In other instances, playing upon the normal responses can enhance an
otherwise mundane experience. Some suggestions for using this knowledge are:

• Left turning upon entry
By creating an attractive, larger, brighter opening to the left, or by placing
a barrier to force flow to the left, a designer can select against the right
turning tendency.
• See-through panels, exhibit cases, and windows
By using these devices, a designer can capture attention, draw visitors into
the next area, heighten mystery, create openness, and promote interest and
movement.
• Pools of light and color
Using areas of light and color as accents plays upon chromaphilic and
photophilic tendencies, enticing visitors along a path of progression.
• Landmark exhibits
Placing striking exhibits periodically throughout a gallery draws visitors
through the gallery.
• Use headlining and large type
These permit quick transfer of basic information such as themes, subdivisions,
and topics. Headlines are visually more attractive than text blocks
and are more often read.
• Use diagonals and curves
The human eye follows lines. Diagonals and curves are visually active. They
can lead people along, and achieve enough visual motion to allow a visitor
to leave one exhibit and move to the next one.
• Transitional spaces
Changes in ceiling height, color scheme, lighting level, aisle width, and
other visual and physical manipulations promote shifts in attention,
generate curiosity about the next space, and evoke emotional responses.
Dim lighting promotes quietness and is calming. It can serve to ease the
transition from one type of space to another.

Traffic flow approaches

Along with the design principles discussed, one additional factor should be
addressed: the manner in which a visitor approaches the exhibition. The
following three methods are fundamental. Depending upon the exhibition
concept and educational objectives, each approach has advantages and disadvantages. Depending upon the approach chosen, designers can employ all
their skills to effect the desired results. Variations are certainly possible,
although the three listed are reasonably inclusive.

Suggested approach
This method uses colors, lighting, Way finders, headlines, landmark exhibits, and
similar visuals to draw visitors along a pre-chosen route without setting physical
barriers to constrict movement into a single path. Perhaps the most challenging
and difficult approach, it promotes a comfortable learning experience for the
visitor by allowing freedom of choice while maintaining contextual continuity.

• Advantages - the suggested method provides a casual path for the patron
while presenting information within a coherent framework and in digestible
interpretwe increments.
• Disadvantages - this method depends heavily upon the success of design
elements to lead the learning experience.






Uusstructured approach
Upon entering a gallery, a person may choose his or her own path without a
suggested route that is right or wrong. Essentially, movement is non-directed
and random. This method is often characteristic of art galleries.

• Advantages - this is a suitable approach for strongly object-oriented
exhibitions. It allows visitors to move at their own pace and decide their
own priorities. Interpretive material must be object-directed and not
dependent upon a progressive format.
• Disadvantages - this approach does not work well with storylines or
directional presentations.

Directed approach

This method is more rigid and restricted than the others. The gallery is
normally arranged in a one-way traffic flow with minimal opportunities for
exiting before the whole exhibition has been viewed.
• Advantages - this approach allows a very structured, coherent, and
didactically oriented development of a subject.
• Disadvantages - this method often promotes exit-oriented behavior as the
visitor looks for a way to leave the pathway. In some cases a sense of
entrapment results, while in other Instances it can lead to bottleneclts in
traffic flow when one person wants to stroll through and study, and
another wants to find the exit.


Object arrangement

Objects from the collections and other sources are the principal ingredient in most
museum exhibitions. The arrangement of ohjects is of primary concern for the
designer. Even as a designer manipulates space to strengthen a viewer's ability to
perceive and assimilate exhibit content, so too objects must be organized to
increase the impact and to emphasize the importance of each item. Their
placement in relation to the visitor, the environment, and each other determines
whether or not they will attract and hold the attention of the viewer.
There are two sorts of objects that the exhibit-maker deals with: those that are
flat or two-dimensional, and those that have depth or are three-dimensional.
Two-dimensional items are usually objects that are affixed to flat surfaces.
Paintings, prints, drawings, posters, and some textiles are included under this
heading. Although they do have some thickness, their visual importance is in
I only two planes. Three-dimensional objects, on the other hand, have noticeable
depth and protrude into all the three dimensions: length, width, and depth.

Generally speaking, two-dimensional objects are hung on walls, or laid upon
inclined surfaces or on the floor. Three-dimensional ohjects occupy sufficient
space to be factors in the movement of people within a gallery. The distinction

Can be clarified by comparing a painting to a free standing sculpture.
Regardless of dimensional qualities, all objects have certain intrinsic visual
Characteristics that affect how they may be arranged. These are:


• Visual impact
This refers to the characteristics of the object that arrest and hold attention
and relates to the strength of the individual objects and to the whole.
Color, directionality, texture, and other design elements work together to
create the visual power of an object as perceived by the viewer. Monochromatic
groupings depend heavily upon value, texture, visual mass, and weight. Color compositions depend upon these elements but add color relationships. It is important, however, that colors in objects do not
compete to the detriment of one or more of the items. There are no hard
and fast rules since design depends upon the intent of the designer and the desired impact.
• Visual weight
The values, textures, colors, and other design elements combine to imbue
the overall composition with the quality of weightedness. For example, a
painting with a large amount of light color depicting sky will give the
impression of lightness and openness. One with somber tones and dark
colors will appear heavier and more ponderous.
• Visual direction
Many objects have a quality that leads the eyes of the viewer in a direction
- directionality. Linear elements, color sequences, weight distributions, and
other design factors affect the directionality of an object or composition.
• Visual bahnce
Visual weight, color, and directionality combine to give an object the
quality of balance. Imbalance is visually unsettling, giving the impression of
being in motion or leaning. Balance produces the feeling of being at rest.
• Visual mass
Objects have the visual quality of solidity or opacity. Color, texture, value,
and linearity all lend the object this quality. The visual mass relates to the
apparent density of an object.

Museums deal with paintings, photographs, prints or drawings, and many
other flat objects such as textiles, posters, and tapestries. The overall arrangement
of such objects is important in attracting and holding attention, leading
the eye to focal points, and creating a comfortable visual experience. Granted,
comfort is not always the intent of the designer, and there are instances where
discomfort related to subject matter may be desirable. However, providing
conditions conducive to learning means achieving visual coherence in most
situations.

When arranging flat objects on a vertical surface such as a panel or gallery wall,
the rule of thumb is to place the items at a comfortable viewing height. The
accepted average eye-level for adults is 5 ft 3 in (1.6 m). Usually, this means
placing the visual mass of the objects so the viewing height coincides with the
vertical center of the objects.



Center line alignment gives an arrangement of several flat pieces of differing
sizes a visually balanced relationship. Even with grouped works where one is
placed above the other, the center line will pass through the middle of the total
visual mass.

Another less useful arrangement is the flush alignment. Objects are arranged so
all the top or bottom edges align. The center lineleye-level relationship is lost
in this organization.

This arrangement does not work well except in special instances. It appears an
unnatural or contrived concession to the physical environment.

In organizing objects along an eye-level center line, several characteristics of the
objects themselves affect the placement.

Horizon lines

Particularly in representational works of art, part of the composition of
the work is the implied viewpoint or eye-level of the viewer. This is the horizon
line and it corresponds to ;he illustrated point where sky and earth meet.
Horizon lines in varied works are often not in agreement with one another.
Care should be exercised in placing paintings with incompatible horizon
lines near each other. They can conflict and create visual imbalance, drawing
more attention to their dissimilarities than to their individual merits.

Divectionality

The direction in which an image leads the eyes - directionality - should
be compatible with the intent of the designer. Some objects are strongly
directional in appearance. The arrangement of groups of objects should strive middle horizon to keep the viewer's eyes moving back into the overall composition. Some objects are self-contained in this respect. Others will decidedly lead the viewer's direction of view somewhere else. By combining the directional qualities of several objects, composition that enhances each piece can be achieved.

Balance

Balance is usually the desired result for arrangements of objects. The
characteristics of individual objects should be balanced in relation to the whole.
Placing dark paintings on one side and light paintings on the other will cause
a visual imbalance. At times, proper use of negative space can be substituted
for positive elements to create balance. It requires a proportionally larger
amount of negative space to offset even a small object. Negative space that is
too large simply becomes space and no longer serves to balance but becomes
the background.

The above principles are true of any arrangement of objects, whether displayed
as individual pieces or as groups of items. Grouping objects into cohesive
and effective units is an art in itself. The overall composition of a grouping can
profoundly affect the attention given to any object within it.












3.20 Directionality
(a) Directionality leading the eye away from the grouping, creating distraction and visual
discomfort.
(b) The use of direaionality to lead the viewer's eye around the grouping, helping to
maintain visual interest and comfort.



Flanking

Flanking uses opposing elements to balance each other along a horizontal line,
forcing the eyes toward the center of the grouping.

This method can employ either formal or informal balance, symmetry or
asymmetry. The main distinction is that of opposlng visual forces balanced
across an imaginary pivot point.
discomfort.

Spiraling
Spiraling is more dynamic and uses the directional qualities of the objects
to create a spiraling pattern of eye movement around the center of the visual
mass.

Three-dimensional objects use the same rules and factors with the added
dimension of depth. Depth allows very interesting and intricate relationships
between objects to be established. As with flat items, individual threedimensional
objects are treated differently from groups of such objects.
Isolating an object, whether flat or three-dimensional, confers importance to it,
heightens drama, and emphasizes it. Care is needed in grouping threedimensional
objects to ensure each piece a proper amount of importance and
attention.

To the factors mentioned, three-dimensional considerations add the relational
aspect. This refers to the positioning of objects with respect to each other in
the third dimension - depth. Objects placed in depth overlap from
certain points of view and not from others. This position-dependent
overlapping creates an infinite variety of relationships, adding interest to
grouped objects. Overlapping in a horizontal plane means placing objects in
front of each other. Overlapping in a vertical plane means the same from
the vertical point of view. The movement of the viewer around a relational
grouping causes an intricate interplay between the placement of objects, the
point of view of the viewer, and the movement of the eyes. Orienting objects
with each other so the viewer's focus of attention will remain within the
grouping is a form of spiraling.

All of these principles and rules-of-thumb are only guidetines. They do not and
can not supersede the well-trained eye of a designer. In the end, judgments
about the proper relationships of objects to each other, to the room, and to the
viewer are only based upon experience and an inner "feel" for the arrangement
of things. However, by being aware of the principles, one can begin to build an
experiential base from which to grow.








Special considerations
Going beyond designing for the "normal" person is an imperative in museums
I today. Populations are in constant flux and what might have been perceived as
I adequately accessible a few years ago is no longer acceptable. Important
audiences can he overlooked or excluded if accessibility is not addressed in
every exhibition. In some cases, exhibitions should be planned to address
special needs for persons with visual, hearing, movement, or mental disabilities.
IUsually, special needs can be addressed in all exhibition designs. This
normally has the effect of improving the museum experience for everyone. See
p. 63 for considerations for designers about accessibility.

• Adequate space for persons in wheelchairs to move comfortably. This
includes not only exhibition galleries, but also building entries and exits,
restrooms, food service areas, orientation spaces and assembly rooms, etc.
-in essence, all areas of the museum building.
• Providing a variety of information channels so persons with hearing or
visual disabilities can participate is important. The use of audio devices,
high-contrast detailed photographs, close-captioned videos, interactive
devices, touchable resources, and similar audiovisuals are all viable and
valuable devices for sending information to all visitors, thereby enriching
the learning experience.
• Including rest areas in gallery spaces helps to offset fatigue and provides
necessary stops for the elderly, children, and those with mobility disabilities. In
addition, such stops allow everyone a place for contemplation and reflection.
• Plan way finding clues inside and outside the museum. Clear, highly visible
Way finders are a principal method of welcoming visitors to your building.
People dislike feeling lost or out of place. Way finders inspire confidence in the
novice visitor and improve the experience. They can be in the form of signage,
information persons strategically and conspicuously located, kiosks and electronic
aids, or directional clues built into the exhibit design. When people can
I easily locate restrooms, places to sit down, or to get a drink, they are more
comfortable, and so enjoy their visit. This puts them in a receptive frame of
mind for learning and helps ensure that they will return to the museum.
• Meeting safety codes is a major item in any design. Providing adequate
identification for fire exits does not always mean a glaring red sign. It does
I mean providing emergency lighting and adequate exits for emergency evacuation.
Balconies with sturdy railings, appropriate protection for artifacts,
lack of obstacles, and similar considerations are comforting for those with
children or persons with disabilities.

These suggestions are certainly not exhaustive, but they do deal with some of
the most pressing needs. There are many resources available to aid museums in
meeting accessibility and safety requirements. The most important point is that
such requirements should not he viewed as restrictive or punitive, but rather as
opportunities to improve the quality of the museum experience for all visitors.


Presenting design ideas

In the process of designing and planning exhibitions, there is a need to
communicate one's ideas to others. In the museum exhibition process, seldom
is one able to plan and execute entirely without assistance or input. Since one
of the primary tenets of exhibitory is that exhibitions are collective creative
activities, communication between collaborators is essential, and not only
between collaborators, but also with those who control the time, tools,
materials. or the purse strings.

Perhaps the oldest human method of communicating ideas is by drawing pictures.
This 1s the first step in exchanging ideas in the exhibit context. Floor plans,
elevations, mechanical drawings, color sketches, renderings, and other graphics
all give the uninitiated person visual clues about the designer's thoughts.

Models go one step further by providing the dimension of depth to the visual
equation. Many people do not visualize well when viewing drawings. To some,
a wall on a floorplan or blueprint may represent nothing more than a line. A
model will extrude that line into a wall with height, length, and thickness.

At some point, the ideas described in the two- and three-dimensional representationsmust translate into a presentation which the creator makes to an
administrator or donor. This is a formal presentation.

Most modern buildings come equipped with sets of blueprints. These are the
drawings that the construction contractor used to build the facility. Often
following completion of the building, a set of blueprints called "as-builts" are
produced. These include changes made during construction and may more
accurately reflect the true nature and measurements of the structure.

In buildings that are very old or for which the blueprints are not available, a new
set of drawings is needed. Someone with modest drafting abilities can produce
usable drawings for the building. Careful measurement of the space will be
transferred to a two-dimensional representation that serves as a basis for
planning and design. An architectural firm can, of course, produce such drawings
for a price. Often, usable drawings can be done by staff members even if
structural details are lacking. It is usually wise to have accurate blueprints done
by a reputable architect for any museum building, because structural problems
and strengths will be identified that may have an impact upon future expansion
and necessitate changes in either the building or its internal make-up.
Blueprints can be used as the basis for making more simplified drawings of
galleries and exhibit spaces. In turn, these are employed to plan exhibitions.

By having the blueprints reproduced or by tracing them, a planner can make
multiple copies of floor plans and elevations of the exhibit space.

The term floorplan refers to a drawing depicting the horizontal plane as viewed
from directly above. Such plans include those characteristics and measurements
critical to exhibit planning. Elevations are drawings that depict the vertical plane
viewed straight on. They include salient characteristics and measurements. In a
room consisting of four walls, one would generate four separate elevations.

A reflected ceiling plan is sometimes helpful when that part of a space is critical
to the planning. When special constructions must abut the ceiling or there are to
be special installations, this type of plan is useful. A reflected ceiling plan is a
"floor plan" of the ceiling as seen lying on one's back looking straight up.

There are other drawings such as perspective renderings and isometric views. These may be produced as needed, but require a considerable understanding of architectural drafting. Usually, however, a floorplan and elevations will suffice for planning.

Models are a continuation of the drawing process, adding the dimension of
depth. They may be quite simple as in figure 3.24, or much more complex and
well-developed as in figure 3.25.

A chief advantage of using models is that a planner can get a practical sense of
how the elements within an exhibit design will work. By moving around
and over the model, the designer can examine all angles for problems and
improvements that are invisible in a flat representation. Changes to a design are
much simpler in a model than when they must occur while an exhibition is
being installed, or worse, after the fact.

It is possible to work out colors, shapes, sizes, and spaces in detail using a scale
model, thus saving much time and effort later. However, the very resources
conserved by using the model are lost in creating it. Detailed models are time consuming and require considerable effort and skill. This causes a dilemma: to
model or not to model. In instances where time is short and the project is not
especially complex, as a showing of paintings in a gallery, creating a model
is probably not the wisest use of available resources. If, however, a new
permanent gallery is being planned requiring many personnel-hours and much
expense to accomplish, a scale model may be exactly the tool needed.

Another use of the model-making method is to work out, in advance, specific
concerns involved with proper mounting and protection of delicate or rare
objects to be exhibited. This may be more of a full-scale prototype construction
than a small version, but the principal of exploring three-dimensional aspects
I of design is the same. Also, the use of models or prototypes for evaluative
purposes is viable. A three-dimensional representation of a proposed design
can provide a planner with the means to have others examine, try, touch, or
activate an idea. By obtaining responses and opinions, the success of the idea
can be assessed. This can be very helpful in developing interactive exhibits, and
may avoid a common occurrence - the misuse or disuse of an exhibit element
that was thought ideal in planning.




4
Controlling the exhibition



Any enclosed space -a box, room, or building contains environment. The
environment is the total of the container's surroundings and circumstances. Any
exhibition environment comprises two basic parts:

• matter (organic and inorganic materials)
• energy
•
As no matter/energy system is completely stable, the interaction of all the parts
forms a constant state of action versus reaction. The conservation mission of
a museum requires that such Interactions be kept to a minimum. This means
controlling the factors that promote interaction. In exhibitions, the environment
of the presented objects needs to be understood as clearly as possible. The
reason is a basic museological principle: the ethical and professional
standard that collection objects must be cared for in a manner so as to preserve
them for the foreseeable future. To provide adequate care for objects while on
exhibit, environmental factors must be controlled as precisely as possible. The
maln factors to consider are:

• temperature
• relative humidity (RH)
• particulate matter and pollutants
• biological organisms
• reactivity of materials
• light

These are of primary concern in all collection management activities, of which
exhibitions is one. In any system of matter and energy, the only achievable goal
is to slow down the natural destruction of objects. By prioritizing collection
management activities based upon the potential for harm, the process of decay
can be slowed down dramatically.

Some of these exhibition concerns went unrecognized or ignored until a few
years ago. New problems and solutions are becoming known as research in
collection care is done. Staying abreast of the literature is more and more
Important for proper collection management - and more difficult.






Identification and scope
It is always preferable to identify potential problems and to take preventative
measures. Recognition or identification often happens only afm problems arise.
Potential problems must be identified and their scopes determined in order to
decide the more expedient method of control, whether proactive or reactive.

In some instances, it may be easiest to control the micro-environment rather
than trying to control the whole building. A macro-environment may be defined
as all the factors within a space that is room-size or larger, up to an entire
building. A micro-environment is any smaller enclosure. Spaces such as display
cases, vitrines, storage cabinets, or boxes are micro-environments.

Micro-envirmments are enclosed within and affected by the macro-environment
outside them. Essentially, this configuration is described as a box-in-a-box.

Managing macro- and micro-environments addressee the same control factors.
The principal difference is the size and scope of those factors.

Each exhibit case, vitrine, room, or box has its own internal climate. The tighter
the box is sealed, the more self-contained the environment. If a display case is
placed in a gallery, the macro-environment of the larger space influences the
micro-environment of the smaller space.
Regulating the environment of the entire building is ideal. That way all parts
are under the best of conditions. However, in many instances it may be best
to control the micro-environments rather than trying to control the whole
building, especially if the latter is not feasible.

Controlling macro- and micro-environments presents separate and distinct
considerations. The main idea is to attempt to keep conditions in the environments
as constant as possible. However, what is a sufficient control for a
vitrine is not necessarily adequate for a building, or vice versa.


Macro-environments

To determine the control measures for a macro-environment, parameters must be
established. To do that, it is necessary to have certain information available. The
regional climate is especially important. Whether it is humid or dry, cold or hot,
polluted or clean is all vital information. Temperature requirements for the
collections need to be set. Is the optimum of 70°F (21°C) ±c 2', and 50%
RH±5% desirable or practical? If not, then what levels are acceptable and achievable?
To what extent are airborne dust and pollutants a factor? What levels of
these are permissible from a conservation standpoint? Setting the acceptable
lighting, temperature, humidity, and environmental requirements comes first. In
turn, those parameters drive the development of environmental control strategies.

The following are the major environmental factors for which control strategies
are needed.


Temperature and relative humidity

A major part of exhibit designing involves modifying and enclosing spaces Knowing the type and capabilities of the museum heating, ventilation, and
air conditioning system (HVAC) is essential to the designer. Normally, local
architects and air conditioning contractors are familiar with the HVAC needs of
a particular region. They can suggest the proper equipment for museum needs.

HVAC systems are costly to purchase and install, must run continuously to main-
tain the desired macro-environment, and need constant monitoring and
maintenance. Due to the expense of purchasing and installing HVAC systems, it is
far more cost-effective to build them into new facilities, rather than retro-fitting
them to an existing one. Many modern environmental control systems electronically monitor the facility climate continuously and effect changes as required.


In many museums, HVAC systems are not available or are too costly. In these
institutions, climate control is more difficult, but not impossible. In areas of
world with high humidity, air conditioning systems are useful for removing
moisture from the air as it enters the building. Passing incoming air over a cool hold at saturation at a certain temperature. As shown, a volume of air will hold
surface causes water vapor to condense and collect in a trap, drying the air.
Most HVAC systems employ either chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) such as Freon, exhibit case, for example, this means that the higher the temperature, the lower
or chilled water for cooling. In addition to drying the air, HVAC systems also
achieve the aim of cooling the air and removing some particulate matter.

Where HVAC systems for the entire museum are not feasible, room-size units
may be substituted. These are cheaper to purchase, install, and operate. A refrigerated air conditioner can help maintain proper temperature levels in both exhibition and storage areas. Achieving temperature control means that relative humidity is more easily controllable.

If small air conditioning equipment is not available or practical, then using fans
to circulate air, blocking windows that allow sunlight to enter, and insulating
walls and ceilings can aid in reducing daily temperature fluctuations. The key is consistency. If a reasonably constant temperature can be maintained, then collections will remain more stable.

In areas where the relative humidity is normally low, the problem of re-humidifying the air is the concern. Injecting moisture back into the air after cooling it is the commonly used strategy. Humidifying can be done as a function of an air conditioning system or separately with a machine called a humidifier.
When these devices are lacking, humidity management by sealing extremely
sensitive materials in micro-environments with buffering agents may help.

One of the main activities in collection care is monitoring the environment. Control is not possible if the true conditions are not known. To monitor temperature and relative humidity in environments, some key tools are:

• thermohygrometers
• hygrothermographs
• psychrometers





Methods of checking conditions in large spaces include the use of thermohygrometers and recording hygrothermographs. The "thermo-" portion of
either word refers to temperature measurement. The "hygro-" portion denotes
humidity. The suffix "meter" means a measurement indicator, and the ending
"graph" signifies a record is kept. A hygrothermograph produces a paper
record showing temperature and humidity levels over a fixed period. On the
other hand, the thermohygrometer is read but does not produce a record.

There are many thermohygrometers on the market. It is wise to choose one that
can be calibrated. Some devices are small enough to place within an exhibit case
or vitrine and are unobtrusive. Recording hygrothermographs are larger due to
the drive and recording mechanisms. Often these are placed on their own
pedestal or mounted on the wall in an unobtrusive spot. Use of recording
hygrothermographs to document conditions should be continuous. This allows
the curator to stay familiar with the conditions to which the collection objects
are subjected.

Placement of temperature and humidity monitoring equipment is critical.
Locate them so they are in the same conditions as the objects. Thermohygrometers
may be put inside the exhibit case or vitrine. Position larger
instruments at the same height and under the same general conditions as the
objects or cases. Placing an instrument close to the ceiling out of reach will
produce unreliable results since temperature and humidity levels vary widely
throughout a vertical gradient. The same is true of placing the monitoring
equipment on the floor.

Psychrometers come in two basic forms. The sling psychrometer must be swung
around to take a reading. Motor-driven or electronic types are also available.
The psychrometer is needed for spot checks of conditions and to calibrate the
hygrothermographs and thermohygrometers.

When thermohygrometers and the other sophisticated equipment are not
available, then monitoring can still he done using thermometers and hygrometers.
Both of these are relatively inexpensive and are usually available.

Particulates and pollutants
Particulate matter (dust) and pollutants (airborne chemicals) pose another
problem, usually solved by passing incoming air through a series of filters
before it enters the building. In some cases, fiber filters are enough to remove
dust and grit. In other cases, ionizing or other sophisticated filtering
mechanisms are needed to remove very fine particles and airborne gases.

Household dust is a complex material. It is composed of many different
compounds including plant and animal fibers, sand, industrial wastes,
combustion by-products, and anything else that can be borne by air currents.
Needless to say, many of these components are destructive to collections. The
gritty sand particles are abrasive. Fibers provide food for pests. The chemical
components can cause serious and irreversible damage to object surfaces.








It is impoftant to control the entry of dust into galleries and storage areas, but
that is a very difficult task m accomplish, especially if the museum building is
not sealed againsr the outside environment. Where possible, entry to exhibitions
or even buildings should he through two sets of doors forming a dust trap
between them Housekeeping is crirical 1n all circumsrances. Cleaning and
sweeping of the galleries should be done with materials that will attract and
hold the dust. Damp mopping may assist in removing dust if no other options
are available.

Airborne gases are a more difficult matter. Some HVAC systems are capable of
filtering harmful gases. Most museums do not have such high-tech equipment.
However, there are still actions that can be taken. Awareness is the first tool.
Knowing what gases are present is essential. Knowing the effects of those
vapors on collections is also essential. Highly susceptible materials may need to
be sealed away from contacr with outside air. Sometimes, covering nems can
help. Open doors and windows should be closed to reduce the amount of fumes
that enter the building. The use of air-locks (two-door entries) will reduce aic
exchange.

A fundamental rule of air pollution control is the prohibition of smoking in
galleries, workareas, and collection storage rooms. Quite apart from the health
considerations is the known damage ro collections from exposure to robacco
smoke.

Control of organisms
The control of living organisms in exhibitions and collections is achieved
through three main activities:
• monitoring
• prevention
• extermination
Insects, mammals, and microflora are the most common forms of collection pests.

Monxroring is the smrtmg point for pest control. Sticky traps or light traps For
insect pests should be a routine part of facility and collection management. These
are inexpensive and ea$y to use. Identifying the kinds of organisms entering the
museum can mean the difference between a pest outbreak and collection safety.

Collection inventories will discover infestations. However, inventory periods may
be spaced a year apart. Spot checks of highly susceptible objects are needed on a
more regular basis. Collection objects on exhibit are often more at risk than those
in storage and should be checked once ormice a week for any signs of infestation.
Prevention is better than reaction. Proactive measures consist of reducing the
opportunities and the resources necessary for living organisms to survive. F o d
in the form of crumbs, soft drink containers, gum and candy wrappers provide
nourishment for invading pests. If a pest is sustained, it will lead to attacks on
collections.

Careful examination of materials entering storage and exhibit areas for
tag-along pests should be standard procedure. Food and drink should be prohibited
from collection storage and exhibition areas. Regular facility cleaning
along with perimeter extermination are preventative maintenance requirements.

If an infestation is detected, the type, exert, materials, and organisms involved,
as well as the action taken, should be recorded in each object file (see the
Infestation Report, Appendix 1). Conservators can recommend and accomplish
the necessary actions first, to rid the affected area of pests, and second, to repair
ox contain the damage.


Reactivity of materials

Materials used in the construction of exhibitions pose their own ser of
potential collection care problems. Depending upon the museum building
consnuctlon, the region where it exists, and the sources of the materials used
to build it, a designer may need to consider buffering, ventilating, or sealing
surfaces before placing objects on of around them.

If utnstruction materials contain adhesives or corrosive substances, collection
abjects will need to be protected either by a barrier or by space. Since the
possibilities are endless and unique m each situation, it is enough to say
that the exhibit deslgner must be in6mately acquainted with the facility,
construction materials, and the requirements of the collections.

In the construction of exhibit furniture and montages, it is even more important
to be aware of the types of materials used. The objects are frequently enclosed
inside exhibit cases and viuines and exposed to whatever is sealed in with them.
Many substances produce chemicals and gases as a function of curing. The
process of discharging vapors is called off-gassing. Woods produce several
different acids and formaldehyde. Plywood, hardboard, and particle board
release vapors from the adhesives used to bond them together. Many paints,
finishes, and plastic products continually off-gas.

The construction materials in exhibitions are a very significant concern for
designers. Oils, dust, and other chemicals released by building materials, and even
the collection objects, have caused designers, curators, and conservators carefully
to re-evaluate all installation practices for potential damage to collections.


Light

Another major environmental factor is energy. Energy is the necessary
ingredient for all chemical and mechanical processes. Heat is a form of energy
already discussed. Light, visible and invisible, is a major concern for all
museum workers.

Natural light contains all frequencies of electromagnetic energy or radiation,
What we see is only a small portion of the whole spectrum and is not the most
harmful form of radiation. It is the invisible that damages objects most.



Radiation in the frequencies just below visible light IS referred to as heat energy
(infrared or LR). Heat has the effect of exciting or energizing the atoms and
molecules within materials, making them more reactive and vulnerable.



Frequencies immediately above visible light are called ultraviolet (W) light.
This is a most harmful type of light for collections. High-energy ultraviolet rays
have the effect of tiny bullets. They energize and damage the molecules within
substances and promote chemical changes in the internal structure. In living
organisms this causes sunburn and skin cancers. In non-living substances, it
seriously degrades their molecular structures.

Some materials are extremely sensitive to ultraviolet. Materials like hair,
feathers, leather, silks, ivories, and some dyes are particularly vulnerable to light
damage. The literature concerning the effects of ultraviolet light on objects
abounds, and more is being added as research continues.

Of the artificial light sources available for general illumination, fluorescent
Lighting p reduces the most ultraviolet rays. Incandescent lighting generates the
most heat. Simple methods of limning damaging radiation include ulrraviolet
filtering materials for fluorescent lights, and distance and ventilation for
incandescent lighting.

Since light is necessary for the human eye to perceive objects, collections on
exhbit are subjected to a certain degree of energy damage. The deterioration
is cumulative and irreversible. However, proper management is the key to
extending the exhibitable "life" of an object with only minor changes.

Adequate protection of collections must include a systematic approach to light
management. Limiting exposure time and reducing light levels are the
most effective means of preventing damage. Light meters that measure all
frequencies of light, including visible and ultraviolet, are commercially
available. A commonly used light meter is the kind used by photographers to
measure visible light. Light levels are shown as either lumens or foot-candles.

Using the minimum amount of light necessary to illuminate an object
adequately is the management goal. Accomplishing this depends upon
the amount of ambient light in the environment. Brightness and dimness are
perceptions, nor fixed levels of light. If a gallery is lit at three foot-candles, then
an object illuminated at five to ten foot-candles will appear bright. In most
cases, this level of lights acceptable for collections. Curatorial or conservation
guidance is needed to determine the maximum light level for a given object.
Exhibit lighting can be designed around such requirements in most situations.
Devices such as fiber optics are now being used and developed that can provide
light with virtually no ultraviolet or infrared components.
Special concerns of micro-environments
In many instances, an exhibit-maker will create small environments within
larger ones. This configuration is known as a box-in-a-box (see Figure 4.1). It
is in this configuration that the exhibit case or vitrine resides. The collection
objects inside the Cases and vitrines are exposed to small micro-climates.

The micro-environment represents a complex of variables. This environment
is most critical since the collections are exposed directly to it. Temperature,
relative humidity, material reactivity, and pest problems are all exaggerated in a smaller space.

A display case or vitrine is usually a sealed system except for the energy I
entering and leaving. In an exhibit case, lighting devices are internal and heat
build-up is a major concern. In a vitrine, the external energy source may be several
feet away but sufficient heat will still be trapped to affect the interior temperature
significantly.

Higher energy levels present several problems. High temperatures increase
molecular activity, heightening whatever chemical reactions are occurring.
Remember, too, that relative humidity is directly related to temperature. The
higher the temperature, the lower the relative humidity, causing desiccation.
Compounding the problem is the fact that lights will be switched on during
public hours and off at night, creating rapid and sizable fluctuations in
both temperature and relative humidity. These factors combine to create a
potentially inhospitable climate for collection objects.

Methods of controlling micro-environments usually involve two approaches:

• Separating energy sources from the micro-environment as far as possible,
thereby mitigating their impact.
• Placing buffering agents inside the micro-environment to reduce fluctuations.

Depending on the sensitivity of an object to light, heat, and humidity, one or
both of these controls may be necessary. Materials like ivory, hair, feathers,
woods, leather, silks, some stones, papers, and many dyes are markedly
affected by environmental variations. Extra care must be taken to ensure stable
conditions for these substances.

Since maintaining a stable energy level through continuous lighting is neither
preferable nor cost-effective, energy levels will rise and fall. The most desirable
method of buffering changes in humidity is one that automatically reacts to
varying environmental conditions. There are two main methods of buffering
environmental changes:

• Using the "natural" buffering effects of the objects and the construction
materials.
• Using artificial buffering substances.

Many collection objects and building materials are "natural" buffers against
environmental change. Wood, paper, latex paint, stone, cloth, and many other
materials will react to changes in atmospheric heat and humidity by absorbing
and releasing them. By placing collection objects in a micro-environment where
the volume of air around the objects is roughly five times the volume of
the objects, natural buffering will significantly assist in maintaining stable
conditions.' On the other hand, a ratio of 50:l will create an environment with
no effective buffer.

It is the rapid fluctuations in heat and humidity that threaten the integrity of
objects. Without buffers to slow and reduce the changes brought on by turning
lights on and off, the atmospheric changes can be dramatic.

Several substances are hydrophilic (literally "water-loving") and have the
inherent property of absorbing and releasing atmospheric water as conditions
change. Silica gel is probably the most popular and best of the hydrophilic
substances. This compound of silicon and oxygen reacts quickly to changes in
atmospheric humidity. It is chemically inert and therefore very safe for objects.
It can be bought "pre-set" to a specific relative humidity. Silica gel is available
in granular form, in packets, or as compressed tiles. The placement of the gel
can be designed into the exhibit case or vitrine so it is unobtrusive or invisible.
The case needs to be tightly sealed or the silica gel will degrade and lose its
buffering capabilities.

Some hydrated salts are also hydrophilic. The difficulties with these are that
in some cases they are corrosive to objects, and they demand a high level of
maintenance. Through constant melting and re-crystallizing, they can "creep"
out of their containers and come in contact with collection objects. Although
hydrated salts are not ideal, they do offer affordable solutions for relatively
accurate humidity control.

Conclusions
The literature about conservation and curatorial issues in collection care is
voluminous and ever growing. Designers ought to be as keenly aware of the
concerns of collection maintenance as any other museum professional.
Consultation with curators and conservators, as well as reading the literature,
should be a priority matter for exhibit designers. Ignorance is not bliss when
collection safety is at stake.
































5
Exhibition administration








Exhibitions require a large degree of management and administrative effort, in
addition to the collection and production activities. Museum administrators
deal with many matters. These relate to the daily operations of the facility,
personnel management, public relations, and financial and educational accountability. Among the administrative tasks are several that relate directly to
exhibition planning and production. These are:

• scheduling and contracting for exhibitions
• contracting for services
• production and resource management
• documentation and registration
• publicity and marketing

Scheduling

Exhibitions are projects. They have definite beginnings and ends. Between are
a certain number of activities that must take place to accomplish the project
goal. That goal is the product - the exhibition itself. Exhibitions occupy space
and require resources to produce, operate, and maintain.

There are two kinds of exhibition projects. They are defined on the basis of
their duration:

• those of fixed length called temporary exhibitions
• those of indefinite length called permanent exhibitions

Typically, temporary exhibitions are on display for one year or less. However,
"temporary" is subject to interpretation and can mean longer periods as
well. Anything longer than three years is usually considered a long-term or
"permanent" exhibition. Such rules are arbitrary and each institution may have
its own definitions. It is important, however, that the definitions be clearly
understood as they relate to the use of collection objects. Some objects are only
suitable for short-term exposure to the exhibit environment - six months at
best. The term "temporary" needs to reflect such constraints.


Assigning an exhibition to a specific time slot in the museum's list of activities
is an activity called scheduling. Booking is the action of arranging with
another museum or institution to borrow an exhibition.

The business of scheduling exhibitions is consigned to various persons within
museum organizations. Who schedules really depends upon the staffing
structure and job descriptions of the positions. In some cases, the registrar
performs the role, but in others, an exhibitions or education staff member, or
an administrator may have the duty. In a small museum, all scheduling and
planning tasks may be the purview of one or two people. The main principle is
coordination, regardless of the person or persons assigned.

Coordination and communication are essential. Every person involved in
planning, managing, producing, and maintaining exhibitions must be aware of
the project's progress. Note that people are fundamental to the success of any
exhibition, and it is possible to accomplish only so many tasks with the time
and personnel resources available. There are several matters to review when
preparing to schedule exhibitions:

• available personnel
• available time
• accessible financial resources
• prior commitments
• other museum activities and projects
• national, religious, and local holidays
• community events such as special days, sporting events, commercial sales,
market days, etc.
• the size of the galleries relative to the exhibition requirements

Staying abreast of these and other concerns is not easy. The exhibition
scheduler should formulate a way of monitoring them. It helps to develop and
use tracking documents such as that shown in Figure 5.1, and the Exhibition
Request Form (Appendix 2).

The tracking process must begin and be centralized during the Conceptual
Phase of exhibition development (see Chapter 1). For permanent exhibitions,
the process of development is usually more prolonged. The important deadlines
should be included in the exhibition scheduler's tracking document because they
impact the ability of the staff to accomplish shorter-range tasks related to
temporary exhibitions. Examining exhibition ideas, their relevance to the
museum mission, and approving or rejecting them are responsibilities for the
administration. Each exhibition on the approved list must be checked for both
availability and feasibility. The necessary space, staff, and financial resources
are identified. If the essential resources are at hand, the exhibition is scheduled,
and planning and development can begin.



Contracting

There are several situations in exhibition development that require working
with contractual agreements. Temporary exhibitions include those produced
in-house by a museum using its own and borrowed collection items. They also
include circulated traveling exhibitions from institutions and commercial
exhibition services.


Whether borrowing the whole exhibition or a few collection items for
exhibiting, the transactions will usually involve a legal contract. If not a
"contract" per se, they will at least have a letter of agreement stipulating
conditions and expectations. Contracts for traveling exhibitions usually contain
at least the following elements:

• the official title of the exhibition
• the dates of the loan
• the exhibition rental fee
• a fee payment schedule
• cancellation provisions
• publicity stipulations and restrictions
• insurance requirements
• transportation requirements, costs, and arrangements
• security requirements
• other provisions specific to the particular transaction such as catalog availability and sales, special requirements for the ones who install, lecturers, or demonstrators that accompany the exhibition, etc.
• signature blocks for the representatives of the agreeing institutions

Traveling exhibition services and reputable museums are normally very careful
to make contractual agreements straightforward, without hidden pitfalls.
Unfortunately, some exhibition sources may not be so ethical. It is always wise
to have contracts reviewed by a person who is familiar with such arrangements.
Items to beware of are:

• hidden shipping costs
• excessive requirements for security, insurance, publicity, packing, etc.
• hidden agreements to pay travel and housing costs for consultants, the
• ones who install, lecturers, etc.
• highly inflated insurance valuations
• severe or unrealistic cancellation penalties
• unreasonable liability stipulations
• items that put the museum under unusual obligation for fees, handling, security, publicity, or other matters


Another area of contractual agreement concerns collection loans. The methods
and standards of loaning objects should he clearly delineated in the loan
policies and procedures of both the borrowing and lending institutions. The
provisions of the loan, its duration, the method of review, return, and renewal
are set out in writing. The loan document clearly defines the roles and
expectations of both institutions. A loan agreement should include the
following information as a minimum:

• a description of the loan object
• accession number
• catalog number
• purpose of the loan
• duration of the loan
• insurance requirements
• a publicity restrictions and credit lines
• transportation provisions
• review periods
• special conditions of the loan
• places for agent signatures of the agreeing institutions

A further form of contract is that dealing with services and products. In some
instances, exhibitions are contracted, in part or in total, to agencies outside the
museum. In such cases, legally binding contracts are written and signed. Again,
it is wise to have such contractual obligations reviewed by a person or persons
familiar with these matters.

When dealing with contractors, the museum should always maintain right of
approval for all plans and fabrication. It is important to establish the
client-supplier relationship at the beginning of a project and to have clearly
instituted lines of communication, review, and approval. At the start of the
project, the contractor and museum's representative should outline the whole
project and the desired outcome. They should establish deadlines and progress
reporting methods - in short, a timeline.


Production and resource management

As mentioned in Chapter 1 on exhibition development, essential management
activities deal with the availability of resources. The elements required to
accomplish any task are time, money, and people. This translates into five
management activities:

• time management
• money management
• quality control
• communication
• organizational control

To assess and track these activities effectively takes administrative tools.
Different organizations and administrators have their own particular
apparatuses for managing resources. However, at least two documents are
needed: a checklist of activities and a timeline.


Checklists

The management tool that incorporates all stages of the process is the exhibit
checklist (see the Checklist for Exhibition Development, Appendix 3). The
checklist includes budgetary information, task assignments, a timeline, and
other essential developmental elements. It serves as a tracking document for
the scheduler and project manager that is specific to the exhibition. It is a quick
reference to the exhibition's current stage of development.

Although the checklist may be tailored to fit any museum's exhibition
development process, it needs to include a few basic elements. These are:

• method of determining a project's status
• budgeting section both for obtaining funds and for their dispersal
• timeline of required tasks
• task assignments

The checklist should reflect the initiation and evaluation activities used in
making the decision to go forward with an exhibition. Determining status may
consist of a list of steps through which an exhibition idea must pass before
being approved for scheduling. It can also include other procedural landmarks
that show the exhibition's current stage of development. A series of checkmarks
and dates makes it easy to find out how far the processes of planning,
production, and fabrication have progressed.


Timelines

To accomplish any task, a sequence of activities and events must take place to
realize the product. A timeline, or series of deadlines, is needed. The
exhibit timeline is the management tool for sequencing (see the Checklist for
Exhibition Development, Appendix 3). It details the tasks and needs leading to
a pre-established opening date for the exhibition, and ensures that all parties
are apprised of developments and needs. Through deadlines it motivates
timely availability of essential elements.

Setting up a timeline begins with assigning an opening date (the project goal)
for the exhibition. Everything on the timeline is then related to the opening. The
timeline should show all pertinent actions (the project objectives) in the
planning of the production of the exhibition from initiation to termination.
A timeline is also a tool for evaluating the practicality of the development
process. There are always ways to improve any procedural activity. By
evaluating whether deadlines were met for a given exhibition, future projects
can be planned more effectively.

Documentation
Every collection activity requires the careful keeping of records. This provides
a reliable history for the collection objects upon which future assessments and
conservation efforts may be founded. Documentation should be generated
and kept in two main forms: whole exhibition information (exhibition file) and
individual object data (object file). Normally, these types of information are not
kept together. The information generated about an exhibition is usually placed
in the administrative or exhibition offices. Materials related to the collection
objects are stored in the collection and registration files.

Collection files should reflect any loans of objects for exhibition purposes
and the accompanying condition reports. Conservation measures, special preparations, or other treatments of collection objects must be recorded and placed in the object files.

To keep all the information about an exhibition together and to be able to track
progress, the scheduler must maintain or have access to the exhibition file. Each
exhibition should have a folder that contains all pertinent materials. This
includes exhibition ideas, schedules, contracts, timelines, checklists, object lists,
storylines, catalogs, and other similar information. These files should be
permanently retained. Indeed, it is a good idea to keep duplicate records
off-site. The exhibition files form a repository of the museum's exhibition history
and serve as a reference for evaluation and possible inquiries.

Publicity and marketing

The nature of most societies today, especially in developed countries, demands
the use of publicity and marketing to attract the population's attention
to leisure activities. There are many forms that publicizing and advertising of
exhibitions can take. To know what strategies to employ, the audiences must
be identified, It is helpful to employ a marketing specialist to assist with these
matters, but most institutions cannot afford to do so. Instead, staffs must
assess audiences, their needs and expectations, and then generate methods of
informing the public of the museum's offerings.

Methods often used to communicate what the museum is doing are brochures,
pamphlets, mailers or fliers, newsletters, fliers, announcements of openings
or acquisitions, and catalogs. However, these forms of public advertisement
generally reach only the museum's current audiences. In more recent years,
commercial advertisement and marketing techniques have been applied to
museum Exhibitions and programs, Printed and electronic media have been
used to promote interest and attract audiences. The blockbuster exhibitions
such as "king Tut" and "Ramses" used all forms of media and marketing skills
to sell the exhibitions. In dollars and cents, they were highly effective. In the
area of heightening and changing the public awareness and perceptions of
museums, they have been dynamic.

For most museums, however marketing is a matter for the museum staff.
Few budgets allow for the hiring of consultants, or provide large sums for
publicity. Yet, even within such constraints, there are actions that can provide
a positive and visible presence for the museum in its community.
Coordinating museum activities with community events and interests can gain
a museum much Lee publicity from the local media. Activities that relate to
seasonal celebrations can also relate to museum collections and educational
goals. For instance, flying kites is a seasonal activity in many parts of the world.
By promoting and sponsoring a Kite Day on the museum grounds, many
visitors can be attracted that otherwise would not approach the museum.

Such events have the effect of making the museum a place for families
and friends to gather, thus promoting a sense of comfortableness. Art fairs,
demonstrations, astronomy viewing nights, holiday celebrations, open-house
events - all can promote a feeling of belonging for a community and its
museum.

Administering all these activities, m addition to the printed and electronic
outreach efforts, involves much effort. Again, the critical elements of time,
personnel, and money need to be coordinated. Publicity and marking plans
should be part of the planning process for an exhibition just as surely as the
gallery plan. Ideally, a person should be specifically assigned to preparing and
executing publicity and marketing activities for the museum. However, many
museums simply cannot afford such a position. Also, hiring a professional firm
to oversee promotional duties is feasible only occasionally.

Many exhibitions do not need exceptional publicity efforts. However,
capitalizing on an exhibition that has the potential for creating a great deal of
interest and attracting new audiences is wise. Such opportunities may occur
only once or twice a year, or less. It is very important to make the most of these
"local blockbusters."

The museum staff can accomplish many of the publicity needs for their
institution without hiring consultants of new staff. Contacting the local media,
preparing and distributing prss packets, and inviting media personalities to
participate in public activities can help promote the museum's interests. A press
packet might include a one-page statement about the exhibition, a schedule for
the exhibition and concurrent activities, and representative photographs of
objects from the exhibition. Also, it is a good idea to include in the packet a
brochure or handout about the museum, public hours, admission fees, and
like information. The museum should prepare press kits containing genetic
museum information in advance, and then when promoting an exhibition is
contemplated, the specific exhibition information can be added. This way kits
can be assembled quickly and distributed when publicity for an exhibition
opening is desirable.

In many places, news broadcasts are presented during the late afternoon or
evening. Mentioning an exhibition during these programs is likely to gain much
public attention. Often people make leisure-time decisions spontaneously as a
response to their most recent stimulus. The immediacy of the broadcast media
makes them good tools to get the museum's message out to the public.

In the United State, the rules governing the broadcast media require thar
stations present a certain number of free, public service hours of programming,
Public-service announcements (PSAs) present an opportunity for publicity on
which museums should capitalize. Working with local television and radio
stations to prepare PSAs is a cost-effective method of producing professional
advertising. The main disadvantage of P u s is that they are seldom aired
during the peak viewing or listening hours. These hours of "prime time
are too commercially valuable to the stations. However, a good working
relationship with the local media can encourage station management to present
the museum's messages at acceptable times during the broadcast day.
Employing creative thinking and promoting good relations with local media can
help a museum meet many of its own publicity needs. As museums continue to
compete for public attention and attendance, publicity and promotion will be
increasingly important.













6
Exhibition evaluation






The area of museum exhibition evaluation IS one that has gamed some
prominence in the past decade. There is now a sizable amount of information
in the literature about the why and how of evaluation. It is not the intent of
this chapter to attempt to cover all of the information now available on
exhibition evaluation. Rather, it is intended as an overview or introduction to
the rationale and use of evaluation as it relates to museum exhibitions in
general.

To evaluate IS to rate or measure something. To evaluate exhibitions is to
question their effectiveness and to learn from their successes and failures.
Learning and growing involve a continual process of evaluating, and
consciously or not, every exhibit planner is involved in evaluating the products.
Yet, deliberate evaluation is often neglected in exhibition planning. In fact,
many museums make no provision for gathering evidence as to whether their
exhibition efforts are successful or not. Whether they accomplish their goals is
an unknown quantity, subject to supposition rather than supportable evidence.
For some organizations, lack of interest may be a factor. For others, ignorance
or willful denial are causative agents.

Some exhibit developers have the attitude that exhibition content, design,
plannmg, and presentation are the exclusive domain of museum professionals,
not to be diluted or corrupted by outside input or undue scrutiny. In the
past that attitude has fostered a sort of benign dictatorship over the public
exhibitions in museums. Exhibitions created against such a backdrop are
characterized by the Idea that professional, in-house curators, designers, and
administrators somehow know what is suitable and appropriate for the public
without the benefit of feedback from the intended audience.

In the last two or three decades. museums have been classified as "leisure-time
activities," while still retaining an identity as intellectual centers. Museums now
compete for a share of the public attention with non-intellectual establishments
like shopping malls, cinemas, sporting events, and other such popular
institutions and activities. Educational pursuits are not always viewed as
enjoyable or desirable by the leisure-seeking populace. To offset the somewhat
stilted reputation that museums possess in the public mind, they have had to
look to self-studies and marketing strategies to help identify ways to make their
products more palatable and attractive. It has become clear that serving the
needs and desires of the public is necessary for maintaining a viable position in
modern society. Improving the appeal of the museum experience without I
I sacrificing its intellectual integrity has replaced an elitist, academic attitude for I
many institutions. While presenting problems of maintaining institutional
standards when carried too far, this need for leisure-time allure has its positive
side. Competition has forced the museum community to seriously reassess the
relevance of what it believes and does in relation to a modern world.

What to evaluate

In the effort to determine the best means of addressing this new externalized,
competitive mission, museums have searched for a foundation upon which to
base planning and decisions. Many have fallen into a trap of depending upon
attendance figures as the indicator of how well exhibitions are succeeding.
On the surface, attendance appears ideal for judging success or failure, and it
is easy to determine. This has led, in some instances, to the popularization,
glamorization, and promotion of public exhibitions to generate visitor numbers
without due consideration for educational content or meaning. However, as
with most things easily gained, mere numbers say very little about success in
the areas where museums are truly able to excel. Attendance figures can never
reveal the effectiveness of communication. While it can be argued credibly that
if a person walks through an exhibition, he or she has in some degree been
affected by the experience, whether or not there is such a perception by the
individual, exhibition effectiveness must be judged in relation to how well it
provides perceptible learning experiences.




The effectiveness of exhibitions in meeting expectations and providing
educational value is more difficult to rate than visitor counts. Comprehensive,
concrete ways to measure the interaction between exhibits and people are
required. To do this, it is necessary to ascertain what the parameters are. As
with any analysis, one must set down the framework of the problem, identify
the elements, and formulate a series of questions to be answered.



Visitor numbers do not indicate whether anyone is taking away knowledge. As
with commercial concerns, "sales" figures are needed to get a firm grasp on
how well museums are doing educationally. Like the merchant, the exhibition
planner must listen to the customer complaints as well as praises. The shelves
of knowledge must be carefully packaged and then observed to see what sells
and what is left untouched. Assessing the level of knowledge possessed by
the visitor before, during, and after his or her visit is a reasonable way of
determining exhibition success or failure. If the level of a patron's understanding
or appreciation before he or she enters the exhibition can be compared
to the level upon leaving, a valuable piece of information can be established:
whether or not the exhibition communicates. If it does, then education is
happening. Following that discovery, the next question will involve how
efficiently it communicates. There is always room for improvement.


How to answer the question of effective communication is often confusing
to the novice evaluator. Terms such as front-end analysis, formative and
summative testing, and naturalistic or goal-referenced evaluation are used in the
literature. The terminology can be daunting, but no matter the vocabulary,
the real challenge is to determine whether and how well the exhibition is
accomplishing its purpose of communicating. The exhibition purpose and

intent are conscious determinations made by the museum staff. It is
those expressed as goals and objectives that provide the basis for evaluating
exhibition effectiveness. When speaking of evaluation, one will always end up
talking about goals and objectives.



As a first step a museum staff needs to write down what the evaluation is to
achieve. Three targets areas for exhibition evaluation are:
• museum audience
• exhibition process
• exhibition effectiveness
The need and criteria for evaluation should have been established and written
down before beginning the Planning Stage of the Developmental Phase (see
Chapter 1). If they are not, then much of the early effort of evaluating may be
spent reconstructing goals and objectives. Even if they are not in written form,
the implied goals can usually be deduced from the exhibition and the planning
process. No matter how goals and objectives are originally expressed, to be
useful they must be quantifiable and measurable.

Before goals and objectives for the exhibition can be set down, it is necessary
to know the audience well. The real goal for audience evaluation is to
determine if the visitor is responding to the exhibition by learning and feels the
experience meets his or her expectations. There are many sources of
I information concerning the museum audience ranging from a personal
knowledge of the community by living in it to formal studies such as
demographic and psychographic surveys often conducted by city governments
or commercial interests to determine constituent needs and expectations.


From the assessment of the exhibition planning and presentation process, the
museum gains new and more intimate knowledge of its own inner workings,
and its strengths and weaknesses. By carefully examining and applying knowledge
about how things get done in an organization, improvements can almost
certainly be made. Everything should be considered from initiation of ideas for
exhibitions, through the selection and scheduling phases, up to and including
dismantling the exhibition and planning for the next one. This creates an information loop back into planning for future exhibitions. This continuing,
cyclical process should be evolutionary, not stationary in nature.

The effectiveness of the exhibition as an educational, inspirational presentation
can only be measured by testing the impact it has on an audience. There must
be carefully described outcomes set down before the exhibition project begins
that can then be tested to ascertain whether or not goals are being met.

C. G. Screven, a noted researcher in the field of evaluation, raises three
essential questions about goals and evaluation:

(1) "What impact should the exhibit have on visitors (or what impact do you
want)?"

The answer to this question must be within the context of the stated goals
and objectives for the exhibition. "Good exhibit evaluation must begin with
clarification of goals for an exhibit in terms that relate objects, interpretation
features, and the physical design of space to visitors." It should be predetermined
in the planning of an exhibition, either by implication or specific
statement, exactly what the exhibition is to accomplish, how the visitors are
supposed to interact with the exhibition, what information they should gain,
and what changes in attitude or appreciation are desired.

(2) "How will the desired goals be achieved (or how will you attempt to achieve I
this impact via your exhibit)?"

The museum must specifically state what is expected of the exhibition (goals)
and then how those goals are to be met (objectives). The task is to determine
how objectives can he targeted to visitor needs and desires, and then quantified
so that the results are measurable.

(3) "How can it be known whether the exhibit goals and objectives have the
desired impact on the intended audience?"

The evaluators must have a good understanding of the knowledge or emotional
base of the visitors. This can only be obtained by pre-visit assessments such
as interviews, questionnaires, or surveys. Having established the level of
understanding in advance, the audience may then be tested after viewing the
exhibition to determine whether it has had the desired impact on knowledge
and attitudes. Post-visit interviews, questionnaires, and surveys can garner raw
information. Comparing actual learning gained or attitudes affected with the
established goals and objectives will give a sense of how successfully the exhibition has communicated.

When to evaluate
Testing is the process of gathering data and using them to compare goals
and objectives against results. Pre-testing, or front-end analysis, is not so much
concerned with effectiveness of the exhibition as with building the foundation
for setting goals and objectives.

Evaluating exhibitions for their effectiveness can occur within two primary
timeframes: (1) during the planning and production of the exhibition, and
(2) after the exhibition is complete and open to the public. Evaluation during
the first period is called formative evaluation, and during the latter, summative.
By formulating tests to measure the relationship between what the exhibition
planners intended and what actually happened, the effectiveness of the planning
and design can be checked.

In formative evaluation, testing occurs during the exhibition's development
while changes can still be made. In-progress testing may be done as many
times as needed or as deemed effective. Early front-end analysis by way of
questionnaires and interviews of potential audience segments can help establish
target audiences and pre-visit educational levels. Formative evaluation provides
direct input for exhibition planners and designers about what does or does not
work. Pre-tests can include a number of different data collection activities:

• audience surveys
• pre-visit analyses of visitor knowledge and attitudes

• marketing research
• demographic and psychographic analyses
• feasibility studies
•
Trying out design elements and interpretive ideas often takes the form of
mock-ups, models, or mini-exhibits. These pre-production prototypes can
reveal much about the effectiveness of a design, as well as providing valuable
information about other elements such as content, material durability,
communication effectiveness, conservation standards, and any number of
other concerns. Specific design applications and presentation formats can be
tested very economically early on, thereby avoiding expensive failures or
changes later. What seems simple to the designer is not always so obvious
to the visitor. There is no way to intuitively know whether a design or communication format will work. Only testing and experience can provide for an
educated guess.

A simple formative test might involve an interactive device, such as a flip cover
question and answer panel, built of inexpensive materials like mat board.
The panel can be placed in a lobby, hallway, gallery, or other public area
inviting visitors to participate. By observing and questioning people who try the
device, the staff can get a good sense of how successful a similar idea would
be in an exhibition environment. Also, if the presented information reflects the
level and type intended for the final exhibition, then the degree of successful
communication can be checked. Regardless of the expertise of any designer or
planner, no one can know what will or will not communicate unless their ideas
have been tested.

Not only methods, but also materials can be tested for durability and usability.
In one instance, a particular plastic product was placed on the floor where
the staff would walk on it for some weeks. The results of this test helped the
designers determine that the substance could withstand the handling it would
be subjected to in actual use by school children. Any such testing of materials
or methods is a kind of formative evaluation.

Summative evaluation, on the other hand, assesses the product after it is
completed. Such tests are useful for identifying problems and improving
effectiveness of exhibitions. Summative evaluation also provides vital data for
planning future exhibitions.

Follow-up evaluation might involve pre- and post-visit interviews to determine
the level of information being transferred through the exhibition, mapping and
timing of visitor activity in the gallery, or the use of questionnaires to assess
satisfaction with the exhibition. Based upon the educational goals already
established, the interview process can reveal how well those goals are being met.
In some instances, such as for permanent galleries, adjustments and changes to
the exhibition are still possible. Regardless of whether the current exhibition
can practicably be altered, the information gained through summative testing
will be invaluable for future planning.

Summative testing is administered as a post-installation activity, usually based
on visitor interviews or questionnaires. Often these assessments are one-time
activities and are performed to determine how the exhibition is perceived and
used by the public. Such evaluations assist future exhibition planning by
describing visitor needs, assessing actual audience composition, generating ideas
for better interpretation, and aiding in establishing more realistic exhibition
goals


The whole idea behind evaluation is the improvement of exhibition execution
and performance. Testing the audience before and a k a viewing the exhibition
will provide information about its communicative viability. Observing changes
and wear in materials will provide knowledge about where and when to
use them. Assessing the frequency and duration of use by visitors will supply
information about what does or does not attract attention as planned,
Front-end analyses and formative and summative evaluations are complementary,
not exclusionary. Pre-testing is useful in determining who the audience are
and what they expect. Formative evaluation assists in planning, and summative
assessments tell whether that planning was successful. By conducting testing in
all three timeframes a more complete picture of the exhibition development
process, the goals and objectives, targeted audiences, and the effectiveness of
communication can be drawn.


How to evaluate

There are any number of approaches to evaluating or testing. Each researcher
has his or her own particular methodology and procedure. In many cases,
a newcomer to exhibition evaluation is daunted by the confusing claims of
the various potential approaches. Really, there are only a few ways to go
about evaluation with many variations. A principal manner of identifying
data collection methodologies is to classify them as either formal (scientific,
quantitative data gathering procedures and interpretation aimed at determining
precise levels of learning and retention)o, r informal (perceptual, less structured,
aimed at determining reactions and usefulness).

Formal methods are characterized by clearly defining goals and objectives and
quantifiable, testable components. To obtain quantifiable goals, the evaluating
and planning become integrated. This is called a "goal-referenced approach."

According to C. G. Screven, there are two main properties of this approach:

(1) Distinct decision points at which it is determined how well goals and
visitor reaction match.

(2) Feedback from evaluation of exhibition components to accomplish desired
outcomes.

Goal-referenced evaluation can be done for existing or future exhibitions, In
either case, Screven indicates three tasks ought to be incorporated:

(1) Define the intended audience.

(2) Define the visitor-related goals [including educational goals and objectives).

(3)Develop dependable measures of visitor reactions, such as knowledge or
attitudes, to determine whether goals are being met.

Another, more informal approach to evaluation relies upon neither firm
exhibition nor evaluative goals. This is called exploratory evaluation,
sometimes referred to as the perceptual method. This type of testing yields
descriptive information that can be used in exhibition planning. R. G. Barker's
methods emphasize the importance of the physical setting to evaluative
behavior (relating the physical condition8 and the expectations of the visitors).'
This method introduces a number of affective factors including a visitor's
perception of the museum/gallery, his or her worldview, and behavioral
cultural norms. The perceptual method treats the exhibition and the visitor as
a single unit or at least as co-dependents
.
Robert Wolf, another evaluation expert, uses what he calls "naturalistic
evaluation."This too is related to setting and behavior. Wolf emphasizes
unobtrusive observations and conversational-style, post-visit interviews. He
advocates a less structured format, not inhibited by pre-stated objectives, This,
Wolf maintains, allows for unexpected and enlightening revelations.

These informal evaluation methods have commonalities. Wolf and Tymitz describe
three steps in the strategy of the naturalistic evaluation. The y are in essence:

• Assess the characteristics of the whole exhibition setting. Exhibitions do not
occur in a vacuum. It is important to understand the whole context of the
museum experience.
• Identify the elements in an exhibition that appear to have the greatest
influence on the visitor.
• Select those elements that appear mast important in controlling &at
happens in the exhibition. That is, narrow the list of parts identified in the
second step to those that should be studied in depth.

Wolf outlines six sources of data or information used to determine the above:

• General descriptive information about the physical and institutional sating.
• Action or behavior descriptions horn o b s e i n gvi sitors in the museum and
exhibition setting.
• Quotable quote6 from the visitors that reflect their impressions about the
exhibition experience.
• Physical traces of past behavior such as places worn smooth by rubbing,
points on maps that have been obliterated from much touching, and other
such signs of visitor impact on the exhibits.
• Written records.
• Interviews with staff, professionals, and visitors to gather salient concerns
to consider.

Informal evaluations, though not scientific, can yield valuable information for
the exhibiting institution and may be summative or formative, cognitive or
affective. Cognitive evaluation seeks to determine what concrete information a
visitor has gained from the exhibition, while affective evaluation assesses
changes in attitude or appreciation about the subjects presented in the
exhibition.

Formal evaluation methods axe more useful for gathering cognitive:
Information. Cognitive testing can involve pre- and post-visit interviews to
determine what visitors know, or think they know, about a subject before
they experience the exhibition. Afterwards they are tested to see if factual
information has been learned. Much of cognitive testing depends on interviews
or questionnaires. The information gained can be quantified and set down in
readily digestible reports showing learning curves and other useful data that
will support the assessment of the exhibition's successes or failures.

Affective evaluation is more difficult to obtain because it deals with intangibles - attitudes and beliefs. These are less easily quantified into numerical values.
Since affective learning is more abstract, it 1s more difficult to discover why and
how it occurs. From evaluations of affective learning, the best one can get is a
sense of success or failure.

Unobtrusive observation - noting where visitors linger to look or read,
noticeably react ra or discuss the subject matter, or smile and show pleasure
with the exhibition - leads to a sense of positive outcome. However, if the
visitors avoid certain exhibitions, leave quickly, show displeasure, or speak
negatively, the reasons are not so easily discovered. Assessing what is not
working and why requires going beyond simple success of failure judgments.
Questions must be asked of the visitor in ways that are designed to elicit
honest .appraisal and emotional responses.

Scientific and perceptual approaches both need adequate input to be useful.
There are a number of effective ways to gather data foe more in-depth
analysis, such as:

• formal interviews
• open-ended discussions
• written questionnaires
• cognitive and/or affective tests
• unobtrusive observation. involving:
tracking and timing visitors as they move through various exhibitions
observational checklists and behavioral rating sheets to codify visitor behavior
videotape and analysis

To obtain data as free of bias as possible, certain precautions must be built into
the testing. Sampling must include a large enough segment of the museum
visitor population to provide reliable results. It must be random as to who is
observed or questioned, and the time of day, week, and year should be varied
to avoid pattern and bias creeping into the data. These are standard sampling
procedures and are covered much more thoroughly in other sources.


Conclusions

What kinds of information can evaluation provide for museums? In reality, the
list is endless and depends solely upon the goals of the evaluator and the design
of the tests. However, museums can learn much from within the parameters
established in existing questionnaires and interview techniques.
More important than determining the effectiveness of design elements is
ascertaining- whether the visitor1 s learning- anything and whether he or she feels
the experience is worth their time.


To make value judgments about the effectiveness of the exhibition, criteria for
filtering and distilling the data must be in place. How can it be established
whether the exhibition was successful or not? There is no clear set of criteria
upon which all agree. The criteria suggested by museum professionals such as
designers, educators, and curators are not altogether those of the visitors, as
revealed in a survey done by M. B. Alt and K. M. Shaw at the Natural
History Museum, London. Visitors were asked to define what they considered
to be the characteristics of an ideal exhibition. Among the findings were the
following criteria:

• It (the exhibition) makes the subject come to life.
• It gets the message across quickly.
• You can understand the point(s)it is making quickly.
• There is something in the exhibition for all ages.
• You can't help noticing the exhibition.

Museum professionals were also asked about their criteria for a successful
exhibition. Although the list is longer, and as might be expected more detailed
and directed to staff needs, many similarities are to be found. Attractiveness,
ease of comprehension, and the ability to hold audience attention are common
traits. All of these aspects lead to one overriding criterion for the success of an
exhibition: that is, the exhibition must communicate well. Attention,
attractiveness, and all other considerations must work together to accomplish
that end.




In the final analysis, the job of creating exhibitions that both satisfy the
expectations of the public - are entertaining, attractive, and worthwhile - and
yet provide educational opportunities - serve the public good and fulfill the
museum mission - is the challenge that museums face today. Complacency is
no longer an option. Evaluation, in its multiple forms, is a prime method for
determining if the challenge is being met.








7
Storyline and text development






The storyline

The storyline is a compound document that serves design and production by
providing the framework upon which the educational content of the exhibition
hangs - a written blueprint for the exhibition. It is too narrow to consider the
storyline as simply a linear outline of the exhibition's flow of information.
Creating a storyline involves several elements. Each builds upon the preceding
one. The storyline consists of:

• a narrative document
• an outline of the exhibition
• a list of titles, sub-titles and text
• a list of collection objects
The process of storyline and text development begins at the point of origin for
an exhibition idea. The conception of an idea carries with it an assumption that
the conceiver has a notion, vaguely perhaps, of what the exhibition is to
contain and what it is about. As with most museum activities, objects are
usually central to the development of ideas. While it is possible that an idea
might arise that is not founded on collections, it is unlikely that it will entirely
neglect some point toward which the exhibition will be aimed.

At the beginning of an exhibition idea comes the need to determine how to
communicate its message: the interpretive strategy. This is the start of the
storyline process.

The development of interpretive strategies is a journey best embarked upon in
the company of others. There are few individuals who are able to generate and
deliver complex and complete orchestrations of information and imagery
single-handedly. Most benefit from the interchange of thoughts and vision
found in group activities such as brainstorming sessions.

A brainstorming meeting is not a formal affair. Indeed, it is usually better if it
is as informal as possible. The only structure needed is a comfortable place to
gather, a subject to focus upon and someone to take notes. The basic idea is
to bandy an exhibition subject around between the participants so that
associations, suggestions, and relationships can flow freely. Many ideas
will seem outlandish and impractical, but that works to generate new ways of
thinking about a subject that will prove profitable. It is important that the
barnstormers stay somewhere in the vicinity of the subject, but discussion,
argument, and compromise are all appropriate.

The brainstorming session may include a wide variety of people. Staff members,
community participants, and specialists may be involved in generating ideas.
These individuals will have served their particular function in the process at that
point, and the work will go on with a smaller group: the exhibition team.
In some institutions, the exhibition team may be one or two persons, and in
another, five or six. What is to be gained from the brainstorming sessions is
a sense of direction for the interpretive thrust of the exhibition. If one
brainstorming session is inconclusive, then another might be needed.

Meeting notes will often reveal patterns of interpretation or strategies emerging.
Sometimes these are very familiar and at other times, new and unusual solutions
for communicating ideas will be discovered. The exhibition team can then move
into the next part of the storyline development by conducting meetings to discuss
and establish the goals of the exhibition. This further refines the direction of
interpretation. In addition, the audience or audiences to be targeted, their needs
and expectations, and the methods of getting the information across need to be
established clearly. All of these elements are essential if the effectiveness of the
process and the exhibition are to be assessed (see Chapter 6, p. 91-102).

Beyond evaluation, however, the audience and exhibition goals and objectives
are necessary for determining how best to address the exhibition subject. In
the loop of interpretation shown in Figure 7.1 (adapted from an illustration in
Candace Matelic's video "Successful Interpretive Planning"),' the message and
channels must be decided upon and tests for suitability planned.
As the process continues, coupled with team meetings, the work of research
must be ongoing. The curator or subject expert will be generating the narrative
document based upon his or her knowledge and the collections, plus other
available sources. A preliminary list of objects will emerge, usually containing
more items than will be needed. The interactive process of meeting, researching,
and refining will proceed until the narrative is done.

Once the narrative is completed, then the educator, designer, and curator can
begin sifting the information for topical divisions and methods of communication.
The educator will look at the narrative in terms of its content with a
view toward translating that information into digestible bites. The designer will
be developing the visual elements needed to attract and hold viewer attention
so that the message will be transmitted. The curator will continue to work with
the other team members to ensure informational accuracy and to provide
collection care expertise.



Once the outline and design are in hand, then a finalized listing of objects can
be generated, and the titles, sub-titles, text copy, and labels can be produced.
These elements make up the storyline document. With this master plan, the
exhibition can be produced and executed.

Storyline and text development

• Concept of the exhibition
• Brainstorming sessions
• Exhibit team meetings:
set goals and objectives
determine audience
• Research is ongoing to produce the narrative document
• Research is ongoing to address collection management issues
• Curator and educator - produce outline of the exhibition
• Preliminary list of artifacts is submitted
• Team meetings:
refining the message
determining the approaches
refining the list of collection objects


• Fleshing out the outline - storyboards and/or flowcharts of information
• Preliminary list of graphics
• Assigning collection objects to storyline segments
• Graphics assigned to storyline and artifacts.
• Titles, sub-titles, and labels established and tested
• Designing the exhibition
• Establishing key exhibits, structures, shapes, traffic patterns, etc.
• Testing design elements for effectiveness and durability
• Writing text, labels, and other copy
• Testing text, labels, and copy for comprehension, terminology, etc
• Production of the exhibition
• Function of the exhibition
• Terminating the exhibition
• Evaluating the design and storyline process and interpretive value


Storyline elements

Narrative document

The narrative is a manuscript for the exhibition. It is researched and written
by the curatorial member of the exhibition team, and includes information
about the exhibition subject extracted from the curator's knowledge of collections,
object provenance, personal expertise, and any other identified resources
he or she may have. The narrative will usually be or resemble a scholarly
paper about the exhibition subject, much too wordy for label copy, and
not always clearly delineating sections or topical divisions within the subject.
In a sense, it is everything the curator feels should be known about the exhibition
theme.

Normally, the narrative takes a good deal of time to generate because of the
nature of research. During its development, the curator is honing his or
her knowledge, discovering new information, and making associations not
encountered before. These revelations should be included in the narrative if they
apply to the exhibition. The development of an exhibition narrative may also
lead the researcher into new lines of investigation and result in scholarly
publications. The production of a narrative should be viewed as an intellectual
pursuit equal to other such activities in academia.

The narrative is the first and foundational document of the storyline proper.
The work of developing educational programs, designing exhibitions, and
other such essential tasks wait upon the narrative as their guide. Once in hand,
the other stages of exhibition development can take place. To attempt to
generate a major exhibition without the storyline is to court confusion and
disjointed interpretation.

Outline of the exhibition

This document will be formulated by the curator, educator and the designer of the team using the narrative, a preliminary list of objects to include, and the
educational goals. They create a document which, in outline form, lists the major
topics and sub-topics contained in the exhibition theme. This document is as
detailed as is necessary to communicate clearly the type and levels of
information and its direction of flow that will be reflected in the exhibition design.
For example, an exhibition on the ethno history of early humans in the New
World might include topics such as the migrations of people, their technology,
their lifestyles, the belief systems, the main resources upon which they relied,
etc.

Example
Title: Ethnohistory of the People of the Americas

1 Migrations

11 Technology

I11 Lifestyles

1V Beliefs

V Resources

Under the topic of technology, a series of sub-topics might address the
techniques of container manufacture, food preparation, hunting tools,
processing tools, toys, etc.

Example
I1 Technology
A. Making of tools
I 1. container technologies
a. methods of pot-making
b. basketry techniques
c. using animal resources 2. weapons technologies
a. projectile point production
b. shaft production
I c. hardening tecl7niqztes
B. Food preparation
1. gathering strategies
a. seasonal cycles and resources
b. types of animals and plants used
2. processing tools and methods
a. tools for processing plant materials
b. tools for processing animal materials
3. cooking and eating utensils
a. cooking
b. eating
c. drinking

C. Hunting
1. types of tools
2. passive strategies used
a. cliff jumps
b. pit traps
c. canyon traps
3. active strategies used
a. spears
b. bows and arrows

An outline will also include suggestions about the artifacts and objects to
be used to illustrate the section, its general configuration for information flow,
possible methods of addressing topics such as texts, audiovisuals, graphics,
computers, and the like.

Example
II Technology
A. Making of tools
I . container technologies
a. methods of pot-making
(Holden film of modern Native American potter using
ancient techniques; various styles of pottery produced by the
native people: Accn #1975.25.1, #1942.150, #1 991.25.1i)
b. basketry techniques
(diagrams of various stages of basket making: Accn
#1975.25.35, #1987.42.78)

The outline is not intended to directly address the design or aesthetics of the
exhibition, although the flow of information may well suggest specific layouts
to be used, or colors having specific meanings within the subject context. Also,
the educator will need to include requirements for educational programming.
If the exhibition is to be used for school tours, then the educator will have to
indicate where the tour groups will need space to gather near a docent, how
many people a tour will consist of, and how other visitors will interact with the
tours. If a demonstrator is to be part of the plan, then the space needs to be
identified for that activity. Any such needs should he at the designer's fingertips
when he or she begins laying out the gallery design. Hindsight is not useful
except in planning the next exhibition.

To assist in developing the outline and to help determine how information is to
be presented so that the visitors can absorb it, other sub-documents may be
helpful, such as a storyboard or a flowchart of information.

• Storyboard: In some cases, a storyboard may be drawn up between the
curator, educator, and designer so that communication is clear. This might
consist of cards or placards and could include sketches. These are tacked to
bulletin board, wall, or a suitable flat surface in order of progression. The
storyboard can be quite helpful in finalizing the content of an exhibition. By
having people outside the team "read" the storyboard, a sort of pre-test for
the success of the educational approach can be made. The storyboard provides
an easily modified model of the exhibition content, allowing the process
of development a certain degree of fluidity.
• Flowchart of information: A flowchart of information serves as an alternative or addition to the storyboard. This is a graphic showing the desired arrangement of information and its relation to the movement of the audience. This can be set up as a rough floor plan or simply a linear chart. If a floor plan is used, the planner must be careful to concentrate on the direction of information and not on designing the specific look of the exhibition. A flowchart is a planning tool, not a gallery design.

List of titles, sub-titles, and text

This document will often be included as part of the outline, but it should be the
product of a team effort and some testing.

• Title Text: The title of the exhibition is an important piece of visual, written
information. It sets the tone and parameters of the exhibition and serves as
a major part of the curiosity "hook" needed to attract visitors into the
gallery. The title should use visual language but avoid trite, cliche, or wordy
verbiage.
• Sub-title Texts: These act as unifying visual and verbal guides through the
exhibition. They serve the same purpose as newspaper headlines, giving in a
few words the gist of each major topic and sub-topic. The sub-titles help the
visitor, regardless of attention level, follow the flow of information and
relationships between objects. They serve as markers to guide the visitor
along through the exhibition subject. With the title and sub-titles alone, a
patron should have a general idea of what the exhibition is about and the
major ideas being presented.
• Label Texts: Text labels are often the most poorly thought out part of many
exhibitions. Despite careful planning and execution of all other elements, an
exhibition can suffer due to badly conceived and worded labels. In some
cases the narrative is simply divided up and labels created using essentially
unedited scholarly verbiage leaving the visitor intimidated or bored by the
information. Labels are the heart of the educational content of the exhibition.
They give the collection object the voice that it otherwise might not have, to
speak of its own importance and uniqueness and tell its story. Labels are not
intended to be the pages of a hook, but rather they are presented in plain and
concise language to reveal the important or relevant aspects of a segment of
an exhibition or an object. The final development in the storyline sequence
involves the formulation and refining of the text, group, and ID labels.

List of collection objects

upon which the designer can draw in formulating the gallery plan and design.
A preliminary, working list is generated by the curator while the narrative is
being written. This first list will often include more objects than will finally be
included in the exhibition. During the process of refining the narrative and
creating the outline, the exhibition team will look over the preliminary list and,
with the curator and collection manager's advice, select the final list. By the time
the storyline is complete, the objects have been chosen and label copy has been
written.

At this point, the designer's main function begins, or rather comes to fruition.
Armed with all the information thus far generated and compiled, the designer
should be able to configure the gallery to maximize the objects and educational
mission of the exhibition.


Text preparation

Text comprises the written information presented for the interpretation of an
exhibition. This includes the titles, text labels, object labels, and distributional
materials. Titles serve as landmarks, identifying or signifying sections of the
whole exhibition. Text labels serve as the principal in-depth educational
resources for the exhibition. They explain, expound, and explore important
aspects of the exhibition. Labels are identifiers and specifiers. They point
out and clarify which object or objects are being emphasized. Distributional
materials such as booklets and brochures, gallery notes, educational pamphlets,
programs, and catalogs are means of presenting information that is ton lengthy
and complex for inclusion in the exhibition proper.

Text derives from the narrative, outline, storyboard flowchart, and team
interaction. Through the selective filters of the educator, designer, curator, and
outside reviewers, the text gains clarity, simplicity, and readability. The end
result should be a series of relatively short, concise blocks of copy that convey
the salient points about the exhibition subject without getting bogged down in
jargon, cliché, or triteness. A rule-of-thumb often cited is no more than 75 ± 5
words in a block of textual information. It is fundamentally important that text
copy be written with the receiver (target audience) in mind and not as a forum
for the verbal virtuosity of the staff (unless, of course, the audience
happens to be other scholars).

To expand on each level of written or verbal information (since audio and
other means can be used as "labeling" mechanisms), text may be considered in
six levels:

• title signs
• sub-titles
• introductory text
• a group texts
• object labels
• distributional materials

These constitute the basic divisions of verbal information in most exhibition
schemes. The names of the divisions may be different depending upon the
source, but the functions are essentially the same. In some cases, combinations
of these elements may be used rather than each level being clearly separated
from the others.




Title signs
Title signs as visual elements are important for stating just what the exhibition
is about. They serve as minimal information communicators and as Way finders.
Typically, titles are short, usually no more than ten, and often only one or two
words long. They are normally placed at the entrances to galleries announcing
the exhibition to be found there. They use large-size lettering as a rule, are
intentionally eye-catching, and are often placed well above eye-level to attract
attention.

The informational content of titles is much the same as the masthead of a
newspaper. It serves to thematically orient the viewer without imparting a great
deal of information about the exhibition subject matter. The intent is also
to fire the imagination and set a mood. Design 1s far more important than
content. That is not to say that titles should be poorly thought out and are not
important. On the contrary, they are essential in terms of attracting and
holding attention and introducing the exhibition theme to the visitor.

Clever turns of phrase, familiar quotes or partial quotes, and other such verbal
devices are employed in titles. Caution should be exercised to avoid overusing
cliché or trite phrases. Bright colors are commonly used to attract attention and
trigger moods. Titles are also indicators of acceptable behavior. Those that are
verbally subdued, presented in muted colors, and arranged in regular patterns
indicate that the appropriate behavior is to view the exhibition quietly. Bright,
explosive colors, exaggerated arrangements of letters, and vibrant imagery tell
the visitor to expect a lively, active experience.




Sub-title or sub-heading signs
Sub-title signs are the next step up in information content. They are typically
smaller in type size and longer - up to twenty words - than titles, but are
still large enough to read at a distance. These correspond to the headlines in a
newspaper. They help to narrow the focus within a particular segment of the
exhibition gallery by addressing the topic covered there. It should be possible
by reading the title and sub-titles to come away with a general sense of the
exhibition's subject and content.

Sub-titles commonly use familiar phrases and plays on words to fire the
visitor's imagination, and to prepare him or her to address the exhibition
section information. "The Desert: A Desolate Land . . . Teeming with Life,"
or "Electricity . . . Exciting Electrons" are examples of sectional sub-titles.
Contrast, alliteration, and metaphor are used to stimulate intellectual curiosity.
The visual appeal of sub-titles is important, but readability is also necessary
Whereas a title sign might require some interpretation on the patron's part to
decipher, the sub-titles should be clear at a glance.




Introductory text

At a more complex level of information delivery stand the text labels. Of these,
The introductory label plays a particularly significant role. It presents the first
sizable block of information to the visitor, setting the pattern of textual presentation for the rest of the exhibition. The introductory text contains more words and gives the visitor a quick sense of the major concepts in the exhibition. Usually, the introductory label will be placed on a panel with or near the title sign, or will at least appear close to the beginning of the exhibition. It is an explanatory, unifying statement that presents the rationale for the exhibition.

The general rule of thumb for blocks of text is that they should be no longer
than 75 words, since the average visitor will not read more than that. This,
however, depends a great deal on how clearly and simply the text is written,
and how legible it appears. If information is written in a lively, visually oriented
style that captures the reader's interest, more words are possible. If the text
is limited to short, concise paragraphs, then up to 200 words can be included.

In multiple-paragraph texts the rule of 75 words should be applied to paragraph
length. Spacing between the paragraph should be sufficient to give an
open, uncluttered appearance to the copy. This will enhance its visual appeal.
Also, in text blocks which are the length of introductory labels, the type size
should be large enough for easy reading; the typestyle should be highly legible.
Sans serif typestyles such as Helvetica, Futura, and Avant Garde fulfill these
requirements, as do serif texts such as Times-Roman and Garamond. Type sizes
of 18-36 points are generally advisable. Positive text - black text on white
background -is better for longer labels because it is less fatiguing to the eyes.




Group texts
Like introductory texts, group texts are a higher level of information transfer. The
distinction is that group texts are used to Introduce and interpret segments within
the exhibition. Again the 75-word rule applies, but up to 150 words are practical
if paragraph breaks are used and text size and style are conducive to easy reading.
The purpose of the group text is to unify a particular group of objects or data
conceptually. Often the group text will accompany sub-titles, or will begin with
a short title, sometimes called a "kicker." This is a short title for the group text
that attracts attention by exciting interest in much the same way as a sub-title
identifies and points to exhibition section.

Group texts typically require the greatest effort to read since they contain a major
portion of the verbal interpretive message. For this reason, they need to be well
thought out and succinctly phrased to avoid losing the visitor's attention.






Object labels

The object label is a critical element in the interpretive flow of information. It provides the visitor with details about specific collection items. The object label
answers a basic question: "What is it?" Although object labels can be structured
in many ways, with varied appearances, there are essentially two types: captions
and identity tags.

A caption is a small text block concerning one particular object (or a few very
closely related objects). It usually contains detailed information about the
object, providing in-depth commentary. Normally, the 75-word rule is in effect
and typestyle is kept conservative for legibility's sake. Typesize is generally
between 12 and 24 points in height to allow the text to be read easily. The main
consideration is to provide legibility without having the label become visually
competitive with the object.

The identity tag or ID label is a set of descriptive data about an object.
It provides only basic facts such as the name or title of the object, its malter
or origin, the material the object is made of, pertinent dates, collection or
catalog numbers, and other relevant data. The ID label is probably the
most familiar and simplest form of textual material in exhibitions. In
many museums, aside from the title sign and an introductory panel, the
identity tag will be the only information presented with the individual
objects.

It is important that object labels be as well thought through as the
other textual materials in a gallery. It is often a temptation to make ID
labels and captions as quickly as possible, and as the last item in the
production schedule. However, these bits of information strongly impact
the visitor's perception of the exhibition as a whole. Professionally produced,
well-written labels lend the exhibition an air of credibility and completeness.
To scrimp on time or materials in producing object labels is a
mistake.



Distributed materials

Distributed materials can be any one of a variety of publications. They may be
anything from exhibition catalogs or gallery notes to computer print-outs from
an interactive exhibition. The reasons for auxiliary printed materials are varied
as well. They may be produced to simply document the exhibition as an event,
to proffer more information about the exhibition subject, to nurture an
interest in further learning engendered by the exhibition, to provide a tangible
"souvenir" of having attended the exhibition, and for many other reasons.

Often the informational content of an exhibition (the narrative) is either
too long, too esoteric, or otherwise inappropriate to be contained within the
exhibition design in toto. Distributed materials are an ideal outlet for such
information. In some cases, due to audience attention span, numbers of visitors,
lack of space, or other limiting factors, gallery notes or brochures provide
the detailed auxiliary information deemed important but not essential to the
actual exhibition storyline. Also, printed matter provides excellent channels for
expanding upon the exhibition subject matter.

Usually, distributed materials such as gallery notes and brochures are
calculated more for intellectual than for visual appeal. That is, although a
brochure may be well designed and visually pleasing, it will usually emphasize
information over images. This allows such publications to explore in depth
certain facets of the exhibition subject matter. Philosophical connections which
are difficult to communicate in the principally visual, imagery-oriented
environment of the gallery can be explored with handouts. This opens up a
whole realm of educational possibilities.

Distributed materials are produced in many lengths and complexities. For
those intended to be given as handouts in the galleries, a single sheet or
folded pamphlet is advisable. The important factor is that they be
easily portable, and pocket-able. If handouts are clumsy and bulky, they will
generally end up being discarded somewhere within the museum, often in
another exhibition gallery. Since the primary rationale behind making printed
materials available is the intent to foster long-term interest in the museum and
its exhibitions, designing well-thought-out, professionally produced materials
needs careful attention.

Another way of approaching distributed materials is to place them in the
visitor's hand for the duration of the visit and then request that they be returned
for others to use later. In exhibitions with a large quantity of items, a numbering
system is often used to identify individual objects. A returnable, laminated
card or pamphlet can replace lengthy, clumsy labels. Since the information is of little use to the viewer without the objects to look at, this strategy works
nicely. This same principle applies to portable audio devices for use in the
I galleries. Copies of the information or tapes can he sold in the museum shop.





Guidelines for writing effective text

Writing text for an exhibition is not as simple as telling the visitor everything
you know about a subject. Care must be taken to utilize the audience's recognition
of what is familiar or intriguing to them as a "hook" or basis upon which
to attach new information. To do this, it is important to know what makes
good text successful and what leads to failure. Creative and journalistic writing
are entire subjects in themselves, requiring years of education and experience to
master. It is not the author's intent to cover the nuances of those fields in this
book. However, some general guidelines may be useful in developing effective
text for exhibitions.

To prepare text properly, an understanding of the nature of the reader is
required. There are some generalizations that can be helpful guides hut not fast
rules. Although it depends greatly on the community, an average reading level
is that achieved by a student at about 13-14 years of age. If the average level
is higher or lower than this, it is important to target the actual reading ability
of the audience.

People will only make the effort to read what they find interesting and easy to
understand. The objects in the exhibition are the primary focus of attention.
The text that accompanies and explains them must answer questions posed
by people viewing the objects. Most people are pleasant and uncomplaining
and will appreciate whatever is presented for their benefit. They will also tend
to believe what they read. Since most will not be very knowledgeable about
the exhibition subject, they will be willing to be informed and will trust the
museum to provide them with accurate information.



To communicate effectively in an exhibition setting, text needs to be pertinent
and direct. There is not a great deal of latitude for personal or creative writing
styles. The content of the textual materials should answer questions or pose
new ones. It should use language that is familiar to the audience. The use of
jargon or technical terminology is generally an impediment to effective reading.

At first glance, textual material should arrest attention. A traditional method of
accomplishing this effect is to make the first letter of a copy block larger than
the body text - a "drop cap." Other methods involve placing a small graphic
near the beginning of the first line, or making the first line of copy bold or
italic. The visual appeal of the text is a matter of design with many good
solutions.

The informational impact of the text is also of major concern. No matter how
attractive the graphic nature of lettering may be, it is content and meaning that
hold interest. The first sentence of a text block should use wording that both
attracts and holds attention. If a reader becomes hooked by a tantalizing initial
sentence, he or she is more likely to continue reading the information. Also, if
interest is aroused, then assimilation of meaning is enhanced.

A way to capture interest in the textual material is to appeal to the whole
thinking process in humans. Since the left brain is the analytical center and the
right brain is the imagery processor, appealing to both will be most effective
(see Chapter 2, p. 30). The right brain is the expert at malting a whole picture
out of the bits and pieces of the puzzle (pars pro toto). Suggestions and
associations are effective at communicating a great deal more information than
is actually written. If done correctly and accurately, exploiting this facility
of the brain can impart information more clearly and rapidly than the
presentation of bare facts.


For example, a word picture that compares the flow of electricity in a copper
wire with the flow of water through a garden hose can be far more effective at
communicating basic information about electricity than simply stating the
factual information about the movement of electrons. This is because most
people will be familiar with water and hoses, whereas electricity is an invisible,
mysterious force. Analogies, fables, parables, similes, metaphor, and other such
literary devices, used with discretion, can enhance the success of textual
communication tremendously. There is a caution, however. The same devices
can be overdone. Unless they are used carefully with a great deal of thought
about what the verbal pictures actually say, they can impart erroneous as
easily as correct information.

To summarize, here are some guidelines for effective writing:

• Use visual language having observable interpretations and facts. Appeal to
the visual thinking process (right brain oriented thinking).
• Use active verbs and interesting words. Read the copy aloud for its sound.
• Keep sentences short and concise - less than 25 words.
• Use variety and avoid overuse of "to be" verbs.
• Get to the point. Make the lead sentence important.
• Use conversational language. Avoid jargon or esoteric terminology.
• Construct concise sentences. Use a vigorous style; avoid meaningless words
such as "rather," "very," and "little."
• Remove unnecessary detail. Avoid lots of adverbs and adjectives.
• Avoid abstractions. Relate to events and relationships, not ideas and dry
facts; draw word pictures.







Not all conditions are suitable or advisable for written text. Each museum
must assess its audiences and determine how best to develop text-based
communication. Depending upon text as the sole means of interpretation may
lead to ineffective communication. Some exhibitions are oriented more toward
activities using objects than toward the objects themselves. In living history
museums, first- or third-person interpretation by a docent is frequently
more effective than labeling. In art museums, labeling may be kept minimal if
docent-led tours are employed. The spoken message can often communicate
better than textual materials.

Younger children do not have well-developed analytical skills. Brain activity is
not fully developed and participatory learning is more effective than written
communication. Again, interpretation by a tour guide or teacher coupled with
hands-on activity is far more effective than text and labels. In many children's
museums, written material is more often targeted at the accompanying adult
than at the child. The adult will normally want to use the textual information
as a basis for instructing his or her charges. The language, then, needs to be
aimed toward the child's viewpoint and kept at an elementary level.

Typography and production methods

Textual materials in exhibitions must be "designed" just like any other
exhibition element. When referring to text, however, design has at least two
distinct meanings. One meaning refers to the deliberate effort made to
"construct" text which is interesting, informative, and appropriate for the
exhibition subject. In this sense, "design" relates to content, writing style,
grammar, and other textual concerns already covered.

The other meaning of design in text relates to the visual, physical appearance
and arrangement of graphic elements such as letters, sentences, paragraphs, and
other type-specific characteristics. In this sense, the design is tied to a more
traditional design activity: typography.



The visual appearance of text is important. A block of text that is long and
complex will probably be ignored. People are much more interested in the i objects than the words. The legibility of the text is critical. Lettering should be
of a size and type that is easy to read for the elderly as well as the young.

There are several considerations with which the type designer is chiefly
concerned. They are legibility, contrast, structure, and method. Legibility refers
to the choice of font and size of type. Contrast relates to the lightness or
darkness of print, relative sizes of type, and style of font; Structure refers to
how the text is arranged, ordered, and modified. Method has to do with the
actual production of the text for presentation. In each of these four aspects,
there are rules of thumb, warnings, or needs to be addressed.

Legibility

The viewing distance for normal reading, such as for a book, is 12-15 in. (30.5-
38.1 cm) for text set in 8-10 point type. In an exhibition environment, the visitor
is usually further from the text -2448 in. (60.9-121.9 cm). Increasing that distance
in the above size ranges will make text harder to read. Increasing the size of
text will increase the distance from which it can be read comfortably. This translates into a "standard" for group text, generally viewed from 2-3 ft (60-90cm),
as a range of 24-36 point type, and for individual labels, 14-24 point type.

Another aspect of legibility revolves around an average adult reading speed of
250-300 words per minute. The first-glance attention span of a visitor is only
a few seconds - 20 at best. If the text appears complex or long, the visitor will
not stay to read it. If the text is not clear and legible, reading speed suffers,
attention wanders, and interest is quickly lost.

In terms of typefaces or typestyles, the more letters deviate from basic block
lettering, the more difficult they become to read. Hence, serif fonts are slightly
more difficult to decipher than sans serif types. Fonts with exaggerated serifs or
curlicues and those that are elongated or compressed are more difficult to read.
If properly organized, legible and interesting, the 75-150-word rule is
reasonable for copy length. It is wise to admit that text that is difficult or appears
difficult to understand, no matter how artistically arranged or well written, will
be ignored. If the message is important, keep it short and to the point.

Contrast

In the area of contrast, dark print against a light background is easiest to read and
is kinder to the optic nerves than light on dark. In limited use, such as for titles and

sub-titles, light on dark is useful, attention-grabbing, and visually striking. For
larger blocks of text, it is fatiguing to look at and will lead to blurring vision. A
rule of thumb is to limit light against dark print to around 20 words.

Using transparencies that are lit from behind is a commonly used technique
for text display. It is especially popular in low light settings. However, back-
I lighting has a similar effect to light on dark printing - it makes reading more
difficult and physically fatiguing to the eyes. Again, limited to use as a visual
accent, such as in sub-titles and Way finders, back-lit text is valuable. For group
texts, it should be avoided in favor of front-lit, dark on light type. The 20-word
rule is applicable here as well.

Another popular contrast is the use of mixed typestyles. These create interest and
are a useful way of separating and emphasizing portions of a block of text. However, using too many typestyles in one set of text creates visual confusion. More will be said about the different styles of text but a rule of thumb is to use fonts that are dramatically dissimilar and limit their use to two or three styles within one block.

One less concrete aspect of typestyle choice is the mood or emotional impact it
invokes. Busy typefaces containing exaggerated serifs and flourishes are
visually confusing and difficult to decipher. Sans serif types read as cool,
unemotional, or clinical. These are useful for presenting factual information. Serif
and cursive typefaces are more friendly and familiar. Simple serif typefaces such as are used in newspapers and books evoke the emotional response of familiarity.



Structure
Structure is a complex topic. It concerns the physical arrangement of the text.
Decisions about margins, length of line, shape of the text block, and special
type treatments come under this heading.

Margins are basically simple. Text is either lined up along one side of the page
or the other, or both, or neither. When the alignment is on the left side, it is
called justified left or ragged right text. When aligned on the right side, the
terms are justified right or ragged left. If the type is aligned so that it is even
on both the right and the left, it is referred to as being justified text. When the
margins are ragged, but the text is aligned so that each line is centered, it is of text are related called centered text. For short line length, ragged right is generally best. Text generally vertical, columns often works well in a justified format, but unless adjustments can bemade, justified text often contains uneven spacing.






Length of line and shape of text are related considerations. Text can be
organized into generally vertical, square, round, horizontal, or shaped formats.
Deciding how the text is to be shaped then depends on its placement and use
in the exhibition.




Italicizing, holding, underlining, expanding or compressing text are other
options available in typography. These are generally utilized for specific
grammatical or stylistic reasons. However visual impact can be important too.
When expanding or compressing text the term "kerning and "leading" as
In the metal lead are often encountered. Kerning refers to the spacing between
letters, and leading refers to spaces between lines of text.









Production methods


Available production technology dictates what is possible as far as legibility,
contrast, and structure are concerned. Letters can be produced in many ways.
Silk screening, computerized systems, off-set printing, commercially available
Transfer letters, projecting and hand painting, and using ceramic and plastic
Letters are but a few of many methods. Printing and graphic production techniques
Vary greatly in image resolution, the surface requirements, the amount of machinery needed, and the number of steps in the process. Some methods are to costly to be produced in-house. Others require a great deal of time or years of experience to master.

The computer has been one of the major innovations in the area of typesetting.
The speed of setting type and the flexibility to preview many different typestyles
and sizes in a variety of treatments allow the designer to select the arrangement best suited to the purpose. It is possible, if he or she is so inclined, for a designer to create his or her own typestyles for specific uses. Also commercially available types are able to be distorted, stretched, or enhanced with many computer programs to create different appearances for standard typestyles.

Computerized systems that produce commercial quality printing are becoming
increasingly affordable. These systems can print routed or "die-cut" lettering
in a wide range of sizes and styles. They can also produce graphic images other
than lettering just as easily. In-house printing devices such as laser and
bubble-jet printers are also becoming available with dot resolutions that rival
the commercial machines.

While some more traditional technologies are still viable, the computer is
replacing or enhancing many of them. Some of the more familiar methods
of graphic production are being improved by the addition of computer
capabilities. Silk screening is still widely used to produce title signs, large
blocks of texts, and detailed images such as maps and diagrams. The
computer can be used to create the positive or negative images from which
the screens are made. Off-set printing is still much in use in producing brochures, gallery guides and other such distributed materials, but the computer is being used to prepare the camera-ready artwork from which printing is accomplished. In the area of preparing text for group and object labels, the computer is making significant inroads for many museums and has replaced other methods ip some. The trend toward automation of text production will likely continue. and will improve the capabilities of production staffs.

Type specifications
When discussing type and communicating preferences to commercial printers
about style, certain terms are commonly used. Words like font, serif, leading,
kerning, enlargement, descenders, ascenders, points, bolding and italics are part
ol the typesetting ]argon. Even though much of the future of typesetting will lie
in the hands of the museum staff, there will probably continue to be a need to
utilize the services of commercial firms for some printing-jobs. It is wise to be
familiar with the terminology used.

What is a "font?" Is it different from or the same as a "typeface" or "typestyle"3
Typeface and typestyle are synonymous. They refer to the particular style or
design of a set of letters. Typestyles are named for identification, often quite
imaginatively. Avant Garde, Garamond, Century, Bookman, Times, Roman,
Palatino, Fntura, Koloss, Tinker, and Univers 55 are but a few of the thousands
of typestyles available. They are named by their designer, or the appellations are
derived from common usage and tradition.

Font, on the other hand, refers to the complete set of characters (capitals and
lower case), sizes, numbers, treatments (italics, bold, etc.), and symbols (&, %,
1, ?, etc.) within a particular typestyle. Often the typestyle and font are used
interchangeably, but there is a true difference. When one purchases a font, it
should include all of the items above.

Serif and sans serif typestyles are commonly used terms. The serif is the "tail,"
"tab," or "flag" that appears on the extremities of letters within a serif
typeface. Many of the most familiar typestyles are serlf types. Times-Roman,
Century, Garamond, New York, and Palatino are examples of common serif
types. These are "friendly" typestyles, often used in newsprint, books, and
other forms of printed matter read daily.






The small word "sans" means "without." A sans serif typeface is one without
serifs. Common examples of these fonts are Helvetica and Futura. These are
sometimes referred to as block type. They are thought of as being technical and
scientific, or unemotional. Their great advantage is their legibility due to their
clean lines and lack of flourish.



Another common typestyle is cursive. Typefaces that have a flowing
appearance, often with letters connected to each other by tails or flourishes in
imitation of handwriting, are cursives. A true cursive typestyle has connected
letters, but some computer typefaces are "pseudo-cursive," meaning they have
the flowing appearance but the characters are distinct and unconnected. These
typestyles are friendly, informal, and often appear elegant. Zapf Chancery is an
example of this type.



Many typestyles are specialty fonts and have limited application, not falling
easily into any one category. Time and preference have left only a few that are
simple and legible enough to be used for general text purposes, but even those
few provide a great deal of variety in design.


Points or point size are terms common to typography. A point is a measurement
unit equal to about 0.0138 in. (0.035 cm). There are 72 points per inch (2.54
cm). A pica is a term for 12 points equal to one sixth of an inch. Type sizes are
usually given in points. There have been many systems of measurement
developed over the history of typesetting. Terms such as agates and picas are
still used by some, but without getting into the confusing jungle of jargon, the
term point has become a standard in most discussion of print size and for
computer programs used in typesetting.

The size of type is figured from an imaginary baseline upon which the letters
sit and includes both ascenders (capitals and tall letters) and descenders (letters
with tails or flourishes such as the "g" and "y"). The combined height of
ascenders and descenders is the point size of the type. The "H" measurement
is the height of the capital letters from the baseline. The "x" height is the
average lower case letter without ascenders or descenders.

Spacing refers to the distance between letters in text. On the manual typewriter,
each letter is given the same space on the page. The result is the familiar
crowded "w" and the isolated "I." Good typography, however, adjusts the
spacing to produce an even appearance in the type. Curved letters such as "0"
and "p" need less space than letters such as "1" and "i." Adjustments are made
to accommodate these differences. The spaces become relative or proportional
to the letters themselves.

Another aspect of spacing is the distance between words. This is usually the
width of the letter "e" in the font, called the "e" width. Normally, word
spacing is about equal throughout the copy. Too much distance gives an appearance of disjointedness; too little is crowded and confusing. Spacing is handled automatically with many computerized typesetting systems, but most will also allow for custom kerning or spacing.








Leading is a term used to describe the distance between lines of type. When type
was set by hand, the space between the lines was created by a strip of the
metal lead. Leading is a term still used today. The normal amount of "lead"
between lines of type is 2 points greater than the point size of the type. This
leaves adequate room for the lines to remain distinct without being difficult to
read as a unit.

Style also refers to such treatments of text as italics, underlining, and bolding.
Bold and demi are meant to indicate the strength or heaviness of the line in a
character. Bold is the densest and strongest. Demi is somewhere between bold
and plain text.

In typesetting, the question of enlargement or reduction will arise. The terms
"blow-up" or "blow-down" are in reference to the enlargement-reduction
process. In general, for a given point size, 300 percent enlargement is the
maximum that will hold resolution well. A 50 percent reduction will increase
resolution of an image, but will reduce legibility. To calculate percentages for
type size changes, the following simple formulae work if a percentage/scale
device is not on hand:




Conclusions
Both the design of the writing in exhibition texts and the appearance of the
lettering and symbols used have significant impact on the effectiveness of
communication.

The storyline provides the framework upon which to build the exhibition's
message. It acts like the animator's storyboard by providing the raw material
for producing the finished work. The storyline can no more he ignored or
omitted than can the plot of a book. Without the storyline, planning is
chaotic and ineffectual.

It is through the cooperation of the subject expert, the designer, and the
educator that the correct messages and channels are chosen to educate and
enlighten the public who expect and deserve the best.

The writing that the visitor encounters in the exhibition environment must meet
his or her needs. The museum is not a forum for verbal virtuosity. It is a place
where the uninitiated can go to become informed. Writing should be geared to
the levels of the public. Although there may be information presented for the
scholarly, there should be a preponderance that is designed and directed toward
the general population.

Along with good writing, there needs to be good visual design. No matter how
well written a text may be, if it is not presented well, it will not communicate
efficiently. All of which is to say that text is not a secondary element in
exhibition design. It is essential that textual materials be well designed and
implemented with just as much attention applied to detail and quality as that
afforded to the other design elements.




































8
Computers in the exhibition environment









In the past, the management, planning, design, and production of exhibits has
been accomplished by highly trained, experienced individuals with an arsenal
of manual skills ar their disposal. For many people investigating the field of
museum exhibitions, the requisite capabilities have been outside their grasp. For
many smaller institutions, especially those which preserve and exhibit local or
regional heritage, the only way of obtaining professional, finished exhibitions
has been to contract the task to others. While many fine firms are available to
assist in the production of exhibitions, the reasonable expenses they require are
often beyond the small institution's resources. Such museums are then left to do
the best they can with what they have. Dedicated people who are striving to
produce quality exhibits for their communities are always looking for ways to
obtain the skills they need at affordable costs. Computers have been just the
tool needed to accomplish many of the goals of such people.

In many ways the personal computer (PC) is the major new technological
addition to the museum tool box. For the small and large institution, the
computer has been a great boon. It enables administrators to plan and manage
more effectively, and allows designers to quickly illustrate and develop ideas,
build visual models, and test concepts. The accuracy and versatility of the
computer coupled with other types of connected machines, called peripherals,
has helped production staffs to generate text more easily, to create and execute
professional-quality visual elements, and to make signage quickly when needed.


Product control and cost savings are two of the principal factors that affect
production departments. Technology is sufficiently advanced now for
publications and graphics in an exhibition to be produced in-house. Even if
such materials are commercially produced, the control of production is largely
In the hands of the designer. This saves greatly on time and production costs.

It is foreseeable that computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) systems will make
production possible straight from the designer's mind to the completed product
at a practical level. Computers can conserve not only time and materials,
but also wear and tear on the production staff. While they are not, as yet, the
exhibit builder's panacea that they may eventually become, there are currently
some very practical and useful ways that computers can aid and enhance all
aspects of museum exhibitions.

Even though the idea of purchasing a computer may seem too expensive or
impractical for many small museums with limited resources, it should be noted
that the cost of such equipment and the programs to operate it is becoming
more reasonable all the time. What was completely unattainable five years ago
is affordable now. The investment of money and time in acquiring computers,
even to a limited extent, will often pay large dividends in terms of the capabilities
available to a museum's staff. The real limitation is the willingness of the
individuals to embark upon learning to use the new technology. It is highly
probable that most museums will be "computerized" in some form before the
turn of the century. Although some may use computers as nothing more than
word processors for label production in the beginning, the seductive nature of
the abilities afforded by automation and the ease with which they are acquired
will eventually lead to wider and more expanded use.

This chapter is a look at some (not all) of the uses and capabilities computers
make available now for exhibitors. It will offer some possibilities for the future
as well. However, as with most predictions, the realities will no doubt far
exceed the prognostications.


Computer capabilities and uses

People need and use information in many forms. The way information is stored
and its ease of recovery are key factors in how useful it can be. Computers are
machines designed to store and manage information in ways that are useful
I to people. It is important to understand what kinds of computer tools are
available for managing information in order to make sensible choices about
those that match needs with capabilities.

Computer programs have multitudinous formats, capabilities, and applications.
I The thousands of programs available are daunting to the newcomer and can
pose a seemingly insurmountable barrier of intimidation. No one likes to feel
incapable or deficient, and this desire to avoid embarrassment can prevent
people from obtaining and using tools that will help them. Of the thousands of
programs available, most are highly specialized to specific tasks and need not
1 be considered in the more generalized museum application. The remaining types
of programs might be broken down into three categories:
• word processors
• databases
• draw and paint programs

Word processors are used to create text documents such as letters, labels,
newsletters, and other printed materials. Databases are programs that arrange
and store pieces of information such as numbers, words, and pictures. The
information is stored in groupings and can be manipulated in many useful
ways. There are a variety of databases with particular capabilities. Draw and
paint programs allow the computer to be used as a graphic tool. Pictures
created in these programs can be used in a variety of ways such as to illustrate,
to decorate and to record visual information.


Computers as exhibition elements

Computers have entered the interpretive milieu as well. In their simplest use,
they can act passively as electronic labels and Way finders. In more complex
applications, they can serve as interactive tutors. One of the criteria for
creating successful signage and labeling is that it should be attention-grabbing.
The video display terminal, like other video devices such as televisions, has an
intrinsic visual interest. When the elements of color and motion are added, the
computer screen becomes a very attractive addition to the overall design in a
gallery.

Another important aspect of the video image is that it has vast graphic range.
The combination of graphic representation, verbal information, and interactive
response stimulates participation and generates interest. "A picture is worth a
thousand words" applies well to computer presentation. With its capability for
animation, the computerized label can present very complex ideas in ways that
are easier to understand. The viewer can learn relationships between systems
such as energy transfer, food chains, or hydrology in a manner that appeals to
both hemispheres of the brain. This cross-reinforcement leads to greater length
of attention span and increased retention (see Chapter 2, pp. 30-1).

Although it has been available for a number of years, the computer as an
exhibit device within the gallery has only now become technologically
practical. Automated information systems are getting better and more
fool-proof all the time. Interactive computer systems allow visitors to access
information previously available only from a library and personal research, or
as conveyed by lecturer or docent. These machines enhance visitor learning
retention by interaction, while at the same time limiting handling of the
mechanisms to the act of pointing. With present generations of children being
trained in computer operation and usage, it is natural for them to expect the
computer to be as much a part of the museum as it is in schools, home life, and
business. Computer use in the exhibit context will increase and develop into a
normal part of the exhibit developer's bag of tricks for getting the message
across.

The development of input or "interface" devices such as touch screens has
greatly reduced maintenance worries, while at the same time increasing
audience participation. It is usually better to eliminate the keyboard as an
option unless there is some essential function it serves. The "joy-stick" is still
popular as a manipulative instrument, but they tend to break often. The
"mouse" introduced a new way of manipulating the computer and created a
user-friendly relationship between the visitor and the machine. The "trackball"
mouse, a device that features an inset ball that controls the cursor's movement
on the video screen, has offered ease of use as well as reduced the opportunity
to damage the device. All of these options are available now as are a number
of other forms of input devices. Experimentally, voice-activated and responsive
input mechanisms are in use and will probably become the better solution for
visitor participation.

At present, probably the best interactive device for manipulating the computer
on exhibit is the touch screen. Safely sealing all other devices except the video
screen itself from the user, the touch screen blends easy use with durability.
Touch screens are increasingly popular in many of life's daily activities such as
banking, way finding, and in education. Museums have several options available
in touch screen technology. These include pre-packaged, ready-to-use programs
for presentations that the museum staff is heavily involved in preparing.

The interaction between the visitor and the computer enhances an already
important aspect of museum education. Self-paced learning has been one of the
principal advantages of the museum educational environment. The computer
allows even more control by the user. The possibility of providing information
to the curious viewer is virtually limitless, yet the aspect of learning speed is still
firmly in the user's control.

In terms of the visitor's capability to carry on his or her own research activities,
the computer offers tremendous opportunities. Just as many libraries and
archives are making records and research materials available via computer
interfaces, museums are beginning to fashion similar banks of information.

The concept of a visitor being able to peruse collections (within limits, of
course), access research documentation, and even examine images of collection
items, expands the meaning and use of museums as educational and research
institutions. It will be possible, for instance, for a patron, after viewing an
exhibition on Native American pottery, to access additional information about
the American Southwest, Native American symbolism, or New World ceramic
technology. Even more broadly, he or she might search at leisure through
ceramics of the world, the history and natural history of North America, or any
number of other subject interests fostered by the exhibition.

In the Information Age, the role of museums will be expanded through
changing technologies. The basic appeal of the actual object, the "real thing,"
will not diminish, but the intellectual curiosity engendered by exhibitions will
find sustenance in information technology.


Computers in exhibition production

The computer has made a dramatic difference in the production end of
exhibitions. There are many ways in which this is true. One of the first and simplestadvantages to be realized from the new technology was in producing text
and images. Software programs that allow a user to manipulate text are
prolific. The typestyles available are numerous, with new ones being created
and marketed every day. The human ability to read text places limits on how
visually complex type may become and still be legible. However, available
typestyles, sizes, and formats can be used to create textual imagery that is both
eye-catching and pleasing. For textual "pictures" such as title signs and
way finding devices, such creative capabilities strengthen the designer's options.

Beyond text is a whole realm of two-dimensional visual design. Creating logos,
thematic images, and directional graphics is made easier and more exciting by
using computer graphic programs. The accuracy of the images created on a
computer screen is limited only by the kinds of devices used to print them. The
costs for printing devices which are satisfactory for most exhibition purposes
are becoming more and more reasonable. A standard resolution available with
many laser printers is 300 dots per inch (dpi). This means that in each inch of
the printing area, the printer is able to assemble as many as 300 dots of ink or
toner. That degree of image resolution is normally quite adequate for graphic
and text production. The need for higher resolution (more dots per inch)
arises when the images are to be enlarged greatly. A 300 dpi image is usually
satisfactory up to about a 300 percent increase in the size of the image. Beyond
that, it may be better to transport the image on a disk to a commercial
printing establishment with a machine capable of greater than 1200 dpi (see
Chapter 7, p. 130).

Many museums cannot afford the high-end printing devices that refine images
to 1200 dpi or more but most printing businesses have machines that can
produce such resolutions. Indeed, many printing agencies have computers that
are used to produce their own contracted jobs. The same machines are often
able to accept a client's own disk from which to print his or her images. It
is wise to explore local businesses' computer capabilities with a view to
eventually using them as an output for in-house ideas.

In museums with silk screening shops, computer images are very useful. The
ability of the machine to produce the image greatly reduces preparation time.
Also, many graphics and text programs allow the image to be printed as a
positive or a negative. In creating the stencils from which silk screens are
produced, this is a tremendous advantage. This capability is also useful for
producing text and graphic panels for back-lighting. Using a laser printer that
can print on acetate, overhead projections panels, back-lit panels, and a variety
of other applications are possible.

One of the premier ways that computer technology benefits museums is in its
ability to visually display ideas. This can be done quickly on a computer screen
with the added advantage that the images can be manipulated easily to create
new arrangements. What can take hours and days to design and lay out on a
drawing board using pens, rulers, T-squares, and X-acto knives, can now be
produced in a fraction of that time. This capability helps to conserve two vital
resources: time and money.

Layout and paste-up are functions that exhibit staffs have always had to face.
Layout programs enable the designer to assemble graphics from one program
and text from another into one screen image. The parts can then be arranged
and rearranged, sizes altered, and fonts selected to accomplish the design goals.
The process of laying out and pasting up has been sped up immensely in the
computer environment.

The greater speed at which images can now be rendered has reduced work-time
costs and increased the number and scope of tasks that can be processed. Also,
with the communications abilities already at hand, sharing and comparing of
ideas in project groups is easier and more productive. In many ways, the new
information technology can free designers to concentrate more on designing
and less on producing "saleable" visual presentations.

Virtually all of the major computer manufacturers have hardware and software
that allow the designer to present his or her concepts graphically. Computers
can utilize a number of programs for every phase of design from scanning
images or creating free-hand drawings, to producing three-dimensional images
that take the viewer on a tour of the gallery. Text and graphics can be joined
in a single document, generating camera-ready and finished artwork.

Using available programs and hardware, a whole realm of new possibilities
opens up to the progressive designer. Programs to accomplish almost any task
are available for most major brands of computers. Newer versions of programs
are produced about once a year, and with each update greater potentials are
realized. The next five to ten years will undoubtedly bring many new, exciting
possibilities. Indeed, the computer as we now know it will probably be altered
both in form and function far beyond what we can now imagine. However, it
will be a while before the machines we use today are wholly obsolete, and in
the meantime they are powerful production tools.

For the person who is not particularly interested or gifted in creating graphics,
or is not familiar with using computers, there is a veritable profusion of
clip-art and ready-made text formats available. Even if the ready-made art is
not satisfactory, scanners can be used to capture images into the computer
environment. A scanner is a machine that works similarly to a photocopy
device. It "scans" an image like a photograph or drawing, line by line, then
saves the image as digital information that the computer can use. Scanners open
up a whole world of images. Care must be taken to avoid copyright violations,
but for the most part, any image that can be photographed or drawn can be
used by the computer. Some scanners can also record the colors of the images
they capture. Using color computers and printers, many exciting designs are
possible.

Computer-aided design (CAD) programs are now available for most computer
types. These programs allow the designer to produce working drawings with
measurements to scale. In some shops, CAD programs go directly from the
computer screen to the blueprint. Corrections and modifications can be made
and produced quickly. Production can proceed directly from the designer's
ideas. This does have a caution attached, however. It calls for the designer to
be more aware and competent in creating ideas that will work as presented. The
computer, on the other hand, automatically provides many of the skills needed
to render correct, usable architectural plans.

Some computers are specialized and intended for particular functions. Word
processor machines are useful in text and label production but most do not
have advanced graphic abilities. Other machines can produce vinyl lettering and
cut-out materials. These are a form of CAM system. It is conceivable that in
the near future CAM systems will play a major role in much of the physical
production of exhibitions. The list of hardware and software is long and
growing longer all the time, and with the refinements come increased
capabilities for manipulating material objects.

The automobile manufacturing industry, along with many others, is heavily
involved in CAM systems. Robots do much of the work today. These are CAM
devices driven by computers. It is possible that similar tools will do much of
the work in the exhibit workshop of the future.


Computers as administrative aids

One of the chief aids that the computer revolution has provided for exhibit
administrators is the element of control. As an organizing and tracking
medium, the computer, using appropriate software, is unsurpassed. Its ability
to process information quickly provides a valuable managerial tool. Word
processing is one of the elementary uses of the computer. The ability to set
down words and then to review them before committing them to the printed
form has reduced the amount of time and material needed to generate even a
medium-size progress report, time sheet, or letter of agreement. As spell
checking, lexicons, and style sheets are added, the word processing program
is able to go beyond being a "super typewriter'' and become a means of
generating any form of printed material needed in exhibitory, from gallery notes
to full-color catalogs. The advantage is that museum personnel can retain full
control of the project from inception to production, thereby reducing delays,
and avoiding endless proofreading and being at the mercy of the print shop's
schedule.

Computers have provided another major capability in the form of large
groupings of information called databases. Databases have been and are
continually being built and expanded for purposes of collection, archival, and
financial management. In some museums and libraries it is possible to do
extensive research into the institutional holdings without disturbing the actual
objects. This is particularly advantageous from a collection and archival
management point of view, but it also impacts personnel time and facilities use
as well. In addition, the capacity to explore new and uncharted associations in
information has been greatly enhanced by the computer. Relationships never
before conceived between objects, events, and records can be forged and
expanded upon. As the museum community moves toward the day when
databases are shared worldwide, the research attributes of the computer will
continually grow and become increasingly in demand.

At a more practical and mundane level, using databases to keep track of
objects, object information, money, materials, time, and personnel meets a
fundamental exhibition development need: managing resources (see Chapter 1,
p. 14). Very simple to operate, user-friendly programs can be effectual at this
level. Normally the amount of information being managed is relatively small
and the needs are straightforward, so there is no need for expensive and
complex hardware or software. For instance, a flat database such as
FileMaker Pro ™ (Claris) running on an Apple Macintosh computer can be
used to record, sort, report, and track supply invoices, collection object
movement, and scheduling matters. Similarly, for almost any type of personal
computer there are programs already available at nominal prices for project managing tasks. The documents are easy to create, require little in the way of
disk storage space, and are flexible enough to be customized to the user's
individualized needs. When their use is over, unless there is a need to archive
the information, the documents can be deleted.

When considering a database there are two basic factors to keep in mind. What
is the database for and what is it required to do? There are several different
types of database programs: flat databases, relational databases, spreadsheet
databases, and others that are hybrid programs. Databases are programs that
contaln a number of blocks of information called "fields." A field might
contain the last name of each artist in the art collection, or the species name of
specimens in a natural history collection. There are usually a number of fields
for each object or item. They might include information like the accession and
catalog numbers, the date of acceptance into the museum, the name of the
donor, and the like. These fields are combined into one set of information about
an object called a "record," and a compilation of records is called a "file." In
most of the database programs, the user can specify which fields are desired,
either by creating and customizing the fields themselves, or by telling the
software supplier what he or she wants. In addition, the look of the records,
the way they are printed, and other visual aspects can be determined by the user.

A flat database is a compilation of records in which every record contains the
same number of fields, whether there is information in them or not. Flat
databases are very useful for setting up groups of information quickly that have
a great deal of shared or similar information. For instance, each record in an
address list or set of exhibition labels contains about the same amount and type
of data. Since most of the fields are used for each record, the flat database
works quite well with little waste of electronic storage space. In a flat database,
whether a field is filled or not, it still takes up the same amount of memory and
storage space. In databases where the fields are empty for many of the records,
machine and disk memory is wasted in storing nothing. In instances such as
multi-collection records, there is a wide variety of information for the objects,
often of differing kinds. For this sort of information the relational database may
serve better.

Relational databases are groupings of small databases that are linked or
"related" by a common element. The small flat databases are often called
"tables." Each table contains fields that are useful for the particular kind of
records in it. Information such as the institutional identification, accession
numbers, and registration information for all collections might be contained in
one table. For groups of information that are more specific to the types of
collection, other tables are needed. For example, the data about historical
furniture differ greatly from those for scientific bird specimens. Two different
tables would be required to handle such diverse information. In that way, space
is not wasted on empty fields.

Each small database or table has one field that is the same as all other tables
within a larger database. This allows the tables to be "linked" by a common
thread. In many museums, the accession or registration number is used as the
linking item. Tables contain object provenance, research ,documentation,
conservation history, and a number of other kinds of information. The
relational computer program allows the user to establish links, gather, and
arrange information from all the tables into a set of data about an object or
groups of objects. An example might be to find all the objects and specimens in
a museum that were collected by a certain person, or donated by a particular
benefactor, or that represent a specific span of time. The possibilities for
gathering and arranging information are virtually endless.

Establishing relational databases is complex and time-consuming. It is usually
best left to an expert to create and maintain such systems. There are a few
relational database programs commercially available for museums, most of
which are targeted for collection management or fund-raising. The advantages
of the relational databases over flat ones are the economy of memory required
and the speed at which a relational database can search out information when
dealing with records numbering in the thousands or even millions.

Spreadsheet database programs are targeted toward numerical records such as
budgetary information. They are useful in financial management and come with
a variety of services. They can compute numerical records, draw graphs and
charts representing the data contained, and create reports that are useful in
keeping track of information.

In looking for the right program, it is useful to set down in writing what is
needed and desired, and then decide which of the available programs meets
those needs best. It is a good idea to consult with someone familiar with these
kinds of programs. A person in computer hardware and software sales can
often help. At times, especially when considering something as complex as a
relational database, a paid consultant is a wise investment. It is best to
seek someone without commercial interest in the specific programs under
consideration. The need is to get what will work best, not necessarily what a
person is selling.

Conclusions

The idea of automating the exhibition process is taking shape. Many
institutions have already taken the first steps in the process. Others have
adopted a wait-and-see attitude. There is a basic distrust of machines on the
part of many. Intimidation and fear play roles in keeping some exhibitors from
actively participating in the computer revolution.

Many universities, colleges, and continuing education programs offer short
courses in computer usage and training in specific software for newcomers.
These can take the newcomer from computer illiteracy all the way to expertise.
The perception that only programmers can master the use of computers is
incorrect. One does not have to understand the internal combustion engine to
drive a car. We do not have to be able to disassemble and rebuild a watch or
calculator to use them. There are many individuals who are busily creating
programs for users to operate. Unless one is interested in programming, there
is no need to address the issue at all to use a computer quite satisfactorily.

For some people there may exist a feeling that they will somehow be replaced
by the machine and their usefulness as creators ended. This is one of the basic
areas of resistance to using computers. However, until a machine is built
that can think, humans must give the orders, and in endeavors that require
ingenuity, intuition, and inspiration, computers will never replace people.

Another perception acts as a deterrent for some - that computers are still
evolving and therefore it is wise to wait until they stabilize before investing.
This is akin to avoiding the telephone until the cellular phone was invented.
The technology will continue to grow and develop. There will never be a time
when hardware and software will become static and uniform. There is no time
like the present to jump in and learn to swim. The sooner one becomes
computer literate and competent, the sooner one will stop being bewildered by
the rapidity of change, and feeling left out and left behind.

Even if the idea of computers in the design studio seems abhorrent or
intimidating, it is the way of the future. It is clearly advisable, probably
essential, that exhibit designers make the relatively easy transition from penciland-
paper technology to one that enhances their own natural genius and
productivity. To maintain an outdated status quo by resisting a move into the
future illustrates what Ralph Waldo Emerson penned, "A foolish consistency is

Appendix 1
Infestation report




































Appendix 2
Exhibition request form
































Appendix 3
Checklist for exhibition
development










































Glossary
Terminology is one of the areas in communication where people often encounter difficulties. The glossary presented here is not meant as an absolute definition of the terms included, rather it is to help the reader understand what the author is intending to say.


Accession the process of transferring title o r owner-
ship from the providing source (field work,
purchase, gift, transfer, etc.) to the museum
acid-free a term generally referring to ether paper
or paper-board that has been treated (buffered)
or made from fibers free of organic acids
acquisition the act of gaining physical possession
of an object, specimen, or sample
acrylic paint a term referring to a number of
plastic, water-based paint products
affective learning based upon emotional
response to stimuli; emotional learning
angle iron a metal construction material with a
cross-section in the form of the letter "L"
anodized metal a metal which has bren coated
with another material through the process of
electrolysis
application software that allows the computer to
perform specific tasks; software program
appraisal the assigning of a monetary value to an
object
architect's rule or scale a graduated device used
to make scaled measurements
artifact an object, either two- or three-dimensional,
that has been selected, altered, used, or made by
human effort
audience all or a specially identified segment of a
museum constituency
audiovisual devices machines that produce sound
and images
blockbuster a term derived from the popular
name of the huge German bombs used in World
War II to blast large sections of a city; in the
museum sense, it refers to a revolutionary,
powerful exhibition
board foot a USA standard length measurement
of sawn wood by which the purchase prtce is
figured
box-in-a-box configuration a frame of reference
that views micro-environments as existing in and
dependent upon their surrounding microenvironment
buffer a material or condition interposed between
two other materials or conditions to reduce or
slow the interaction between them
CAD (computer-aided design system): a hardware
+ software system that allows the operator
to accomplish design and layout tasks on a
computer
case furniture structures used within cases, vitrines.
or on bases that serve as supporting surfaces for
objects/graphics
cataloging assigning an object to an established
classification system and initiating a record of the
nomenclature, provenance, number, and location
of that object in the collection storage area
ceiling grid generally refers to the metal support
structure for drop ceilings
central processing unit see "CPU"
coating paint, stain, or plaster used to finish a
surface
cognitive learning knowledge based upon reasoned
thought; rational learning
collection an identifiable selection of objects
having some significant commonality
collection manager a person charged with the
care of a particular collection, normally working
under the direction of a curator
collective medium a particular means of expression
used by more than one person in a collective
effort, and for predetermined and agreed upon
goals
comfort freedom from stress or the fear of failure
communication "the transfer of information and
ideas with the deliberate intention to achieve
certain changes, deemed desirable by the sender,
in the knowledge, opinions, attitudes and/or
behavior of the receiver [sic]"'
composite board any material made of wood
chips or sawdust bonded into sheets with adhesives;
this includes materials such as particle
board, chip board, and masonite
computer-aided design system see "CAD"
computer program see "application"
computer system the internal software that directs
the computer's primary operations such as opening
applications, finding stored data, and similar
functional requirements
concept-oriented exhibition a presentation that is
focused upon the transmission of information
and in which collection objects may or may not
be used to support the story rather than being the
main emphasis
conflict of interest those acts or activities that
may be construed to be contrary to ethical
museum practices based on knowledge, experience,
and contracts gained through conditions of
employment
conservation the processes of preserving and
protecting objects from loss, decay, damage, or
other forms of deterioration
conservator a person with the appropriate scientific
training to examine museum objects, work
to prevent their deterioration, and provide the
necessary treatment and repairs
controlled environment surroundings in which temperature,
relative humidity, direct sunlight, pollution,
and other atmospheric conditions are regulated
coordinating activities efforts aimed at keeping
every task moving toward the same goal
copy written material from which text, labels,
titles, sub-titles, etc. may be derived
cove base material used along the base of a wall
CPU (central processing unit): the machine that
contains the processors and other circuitry and
acts as the "brain" of a computer
cultural heritage a tradition, habit, skill, art form,
or institution that is passed from one generation
to the next.
cultural property the material manifestation of
the concepts, habits, skills, art, or institutions of
a specific people in a defined period of time
curator a museum staff member or consultanr
who is a specialist in a particular field of study
and who provides information, does research,
and oversees the maintenance, use, and enhancement
of collections
cursor an image on the computer monitor that
indicates the location for information input or
activity
deaccession the process of removing objects from
a museum's collections
deed of gift a document with the signature of the
donor transferring title of an object to a museum
designer a museum staff member or consultant who
designs the exhibition, does working drawings, and
coordinates fabrication and installation activities
director the person providing conceptual leadership
of the museum and charged with the responsibility
for policy-making, funding, planning,
organizing, staffing, supervising, and coordinating
activities through the staff; the director is also
responsible for the professional practices of the
museum
display a presentation of objects for public view
without significant interpretation added, relying
solely upon the intrinsic merit of that which is
presented. In the UK and Europe this word is
used by choice instead of exhibition (q.v.)
distributed materials printed pamphlets, booklets,
catalogs, gallery notes, and other materials
that are distributed as part of the presentation of
an exhibition
drive a device that receives and operates a disk
for the computer's use
dry mount a method of bonding two surfaces together
using heat-sensitive tissue and a heating instrument;
normally used for mounting m-dimensional
objects such as photographs or drawings
drywall see "sheetrock"
drywall screw a specialized screw used for
attaching sheetrock to the studs
educator a museum staff person or consultant
who specializes in museum education and
who produces instructional materials, advises
about educational content for exhibitions, and
oversees the implementation of educational
programs
electrical the term for any construction elements
concerned with supplying or controlling
electricity
endowment a funding process in which a stated
part of a money gift (corpus) is held to generate
income and only that income may be spent
ethics the process of establishing principles of
right behavior that may serve as action guides for
individuals or groups
ethnic used in the museum community as a nondiscriminatory
term referring to a division or
group of people distinguishable by language,
custom, or some special characteristic
evaluation report a document that sets down
evaluation findings assessing an exhibition from
the standpoints of meeting goals and successful
development
exhibit (noun) a grouping of objects and interpretive
materials that form a unit for presentation;
the localized grouping of objects and
I interpretive materials that form a cohesive unit
within a gallery
exhibit (verb) to present or expose to view, show,
or display
exhibit case a closed, internally lit piece of
exhibit furniture within which objects and/or
graphics are exhibited
exhibit panel a vertical surface upon which
objects/graphics or support devices are attached
for exhibit purposes, or for use as a spatial
divider
exhibition (noun) a comprehensive grouping of
all the elements (including exhibits and displays)
that form a complete public presentation of
collections and information for the public use;
"An exhibition is a means of communication
aiming at large groups of the public with the
purpose of conveying information, ideas, and
emotions relating to the material evidence of
I man and his surrounding, with the aid of chiefly
visual and dimensional methods
exhibition (verb) the act or fact of exhibiting
collections, objects, or information to the public
for the purpose of education, enlightenment, and
enjoyment
exhibition policy a written document that states a
museum's philosophy and Intent toward public
exhibitions
expansion joint a joint between structural elements
which employs a flexible separator that
allows expansion and contraction of materials to
occur without damage
extermination the acts of either preventing the
invasion of harmful organisms or ridding a
collection or collection items of an existing infestation
through the use of chemical or mechanical
means not considered dangerous to humans in
the dosages needed to kill the pests
fabrication the work of creating the physical
elements needed for the presentation of collection
objects in an exhibition; the process of constructing
props, preparing graphics, building
cases, etc.
facility the physical components that comprise
the buildings and grounds of an institution; the
physical plant
fire rating a rating system developed to indicate
the relative resistance a material has to burning
through and its ability to prevent the spread of
fire; usually measured In time units
floppy disk a portable, plastic disk coated with a
material sensitive to magnetic fields that can be
used to store information generated by a computer
fluorescent lighting light sources in which electric
current is passed through gases in a glass
tube causing them to fluoresce and produce
illumination
foot-candle a unit for measuring illumination equal
to the amount of lighrte aching a surface 1 ft sq.
produced by a candle 1 ft away
Formica ™ a brand name that has become the
generic term for numerous types of commercially
produced, high-density plastic laminates
framing the method of creating a stable opening
into which a window or doorway can he built
fumigation the use of a highly toxic chemical gas
to kill any organisms existing in the target area
or item; the chemicals utilized in fumigation are
highly dangerous to humans and their use is
controlled by law
furring the method of covering an I-beam or other
construction element with another material to
disguise it
gallery a room specifically designated for exhibitions
gallery guides a form of distributed material;
written documents, usually brief and easy to
carry, that are available for visitors to have
and use to gain more information about an
exhibition subject
"Gee Whiz!" factor the tendency of humans
to react strongly, positively or in awe toward
something presented that is large, colorful,
famous, or in some other way out of the ordinary
- hence the reaction, "Gee \Whiz!" or "Oh!
Wow!"
Graphic a two-dimensional depiction such as a
photograph, painted design, drawing, silkscreen,
etc. used to impart information, draw attention,
or illustrate
grout material used to fill spaces between ceramic
tiles
hard copy a printed document from a computer
hard disk a computer device that is more durable
and stable, usually contains more memory
space, and possesses greater speed than a floppy
disk
hardware electronic machinery; used to refer to a
computer and its peripheral machines such as
printers, plotters, monitors, etc.
hardwood any wood from deciduous trees usually
having a rather fine grain and resistance to chipping
and splintering. Often used for framing and
finishing surfaces
historic site a location with important historic
connections usually relating to an important
person or event
HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
system
hydrated salts chemicals that are hydrophilic and
can be used to control relative humidity in
enclosed spaces; among these are sodium chloride,
zinc sulfate, magnesium nitrate, magnesium
chloride, and lithium chloride
hydrophilic substances materials that readily
absorb atmospheric water and are used as
humidity buffers
I-beam a steel beam with a cross-section that is
the shape of the letter "I"
ICCROM (International Center for the Study of
the Preservation and the Restoration of Cultural
Property): an intergovernmental organization
created by UNESCO in 1969. whose statutory ,
functions are to collect and disseminate documentation
of scientific problems of conservation:
to promote research in this field; to provide
advice on technical questions; and to assist in
training technicians and raising the standard of
restoration work. Address: Via di San Michele,
13, 00153 Rome, Italy
ICOM (International Council of Museums): the
international non-governmental organization of
museum and professional museum workers
established to advance the interests of museology
and other disciplines concerned with museum
management and operations. Address: Maison
de I'Unesco, 1 rue Miollis, 75732 Paris Cedex
15, France1
ICOM Statutes adopted by the 16th General
Assembly of ICOM in The Hague, 5 September,
1989, the ICOM Statutes describe and define the
ICOM organization, its role, membership,
method, and objectives
ICTOP (International Committee for Training of
Personnel): one of the standing committees of
ICOM
incandescent lighting light sources in which an
electric current causes a filament to glow or
incandesce, producing illumination
inert products made of non-reactive, chemically
balanced materials with special attention given to
acidic neutrality
infestation a population of living organisms that
exists in collections or collection items: the
organisms may be as large as rats and mice, or as
small as moths or fungi
infrared radiation (IR): the part of the electromagnetic
spectrum below visible light that
humans interpret as heat
input information or data that is typed,,,scanned,
or otherwise digitized into the memory of a
computer
interactive a device that invites and accommodates
interaction between the viewer and itself
International Center for the Study of the Preservation
and the Restoration of Cultural Property see
"ICCROM"
International Committee for Training and Personnel
see "ICTOP"

International Council of Museums see "ICOM
Interpretation the act or process of explaining or
clarifying, translating, or presenting a personal
understanding about a subject or object
inventory an itemized list of the objects included
in a museum's collections
IR see "infrared radiation"
Keyboard the device that allows a person to input
data and direct the activities of the computer
label a textual graphic that provides information
latex paint a term referring to a number of plastic,
water-based paint products
lathe thin strips of material, generally wood,
used to form a matrix over which some other
material may be applied; for example, lathe
might be used between a concrete wall and
plywood panels, or a lathe matrix might be used
on a ceiling before plaster is applied
layout a composition using graphic design
elements placed in relation to each other
left brain the left hemisphere of the human brain;
the center for analytical thought, language,
reasoning, reading, writing, and counting
leisure activities activities that people engage
in when they are not involved in a professional
pursuit
lux a unit of illumination equal to the illumination
of a 1 m sq. surface uniformly 1 m away
from a candle; equal to 5 foot-candles
macro-environments the totality of the surrounding
conditions and circumstances present in
spaces generally room-size and larger
management-oriented activities tasks that focus
on providing the resources and personnel needed
to realize a product
Maslow's Hierarchy a behavioral construction by
Abraham H. Maslow that relates the sequential
and consecutive nature of human needs to
motivations'
masonry refers to construction elements Formed
of brick, concrete blocks, or other similar
materials
mechanical a term referring to any construction
elements concerned with HVAC
micro-environments the totality of the surrounding
conditions and circumstances present in
small, often enclosed spaces
mildew microscopic fungi that attack organic
materials that are exposed to high humidity and
dampness
mission statement a written document that states
a museum's institutional philosophy, scope, and
responsibility
model a three-dimensional representation of an
object or space usually uslng scaled measurements
monitor a video device on which the computer
displays information
mounting the attachment of an object graphic to
a supporting surface; the device used to attach an
object
mouse an input device that moves a cursor on
the computer monitor and activates various
functions of the computer
mud thinned plaster used to fill cracks and seams
in a plaster or drywall surface
museology the branch of knowledge concerned
with the study of the theories, procedures,
concepts, and organization of museums
museum a non-profit-making, permanent institution
that is in the service of society and is open to
the public; it acquires, conserves, researches, communicates,
and exhibits, for purposes of study,
education and enjoyment, material evidence of
people and their environment
natural buffering the interaction between collection
objects and their surroundings in an enclosed
space that reduces or slows fluctuations in relative
humidity and temperature
natural light the light produced by the sun that
penetrates the Earth's atmosphere
nomenclature a system of names used to describe
museum objects
object file a careful listing of all actions or activities
impacting a particular object in the museum's
collections including all conservation, restoration,
exhibition, loan, or other uses of the object
object-oriented exhibition a presentation of collection
objects with a primary goal of providing
their exposure to public view with limited interpretation
open storage the practice of placing stored
collections on public view without interpretation
or planned educational content
particulate matter any materials capable of being
airborne; dust
patrimony cultural property, both intellectual
and real, passed from one generation ro the next
pattern recognition a visual-mental process that
seeks and recognizes familiar things or patterns
pH-balanced a neutral balance of acid and
alkaline
plate the horizontal structural members in a wall
(i.e., floor h late, header or top plate) to which the
vertical members are attached
plenum the space above ceilings between floors or
roofs
Plexiglas™ a brand name for formed, solid acrylic
that has become a generic term used to refer to
many commercially produced products;
clear sheet acrylic is often used as a substitute for
glass
plywood a building material made of thin sheets
of sawn wood, laminated with adhesives to form
larger sheets
pollutants gases and airborne particulate matter
usually resulting from combustion or venting of
chemicals associated with human, industrial, or
other activities
polyvinyl acetate see "PVA"
preparation arranging, attaching, supporting, and
other such activities that prepare an object/
graphic for exhibit
presentation an oral communication of ideas
using textual, graphic, and/or three-dimensional
representations as aids to understanding;
specifically for exhibits, the presentation of
the design to the client for their consideration
preventive conservation collection care to minimize
conditions that may cause damage
printer a mechanical device that receives information
from a computer and prints it on to a
tangible surface
product-oriented activities exhibition development
efforts concerned with collection objects
and interpretive aims
production the combined activities of fabrication,
preparation, facilities renovation, and installation
of exhibitions
project manager a staff person who oversees
the whole process of exhibition development
by facilitating communication and assisting
in providing resources, with the goal of seeing
the project through to its predetermined
objectives
props exhibit properties; those items such as case
furniture, exhibit cases, vitrines, panels, etc. that
serve as the environmental elements for the presentation
of the exhibits
psychrometer a device for measuring relative
humidity using the differences in the measurements
from dry- and wet-bulb thermometers in
moving air
PVA (polyvinyl acetate): a thermoplastic with
good aging characteristics sometimes used as a
fixative or sealing agent
100 percent rag a term referring to the material
content of paper or board indicating a fiber comp
position other than wood - usually cotton or
linen
RAM (random access memory): the amount of
memory indigenous to the computer with which
it carries out its functions
random access memory see "RAM"
read only memory see "ROM
recording hygrothermograph a device for measuring
and recording on a paper chart both
temperature and humidity over time
registrar the person charged with registering
objects accessioned into a museum's collections,
maintaining the registration records, and assigning
the accession number
registration assigning a permanent number to an
object entering a museum's collections for the
purpose of identification and collection management
relative humidity see "RH"
relic a non-specific term used to describe things
from the past, sometimes applied to ethnographic
or historic objects
RH (relative humidity): the amount of water in a
given volume of air compared to the amount of
water vapor the same volume of air will hold at saturation
(100 per cent RH) at a given temperature
right brain the right hemisphere of the human
brain; the center for intuitive thought, emotional
or affective learning, and visualization
ROM (read only memory): memory that the
computer uses to store information and from
which it draws data into the RAM to carry out
specific functions
scale a system of measurement ratios in which real
world data are converted to fractional equivalents
while retaining proportional relationships
scaled drawing a graphic representation using
scaled measurements
scanner an electronic device that 'reads" images
from documents and transforms them into
digital information that the computer can
manipulate
sheetrock a construction material made of
gypsum powder bonded with an adhesive and
sandwiched between layers of paper; also known
as gypboard or drywall
silica gel a commonly used hydrophilic substance
composed of a silicon + oxygen bond, neutral
toward other substances, that can he used to control
relative humidity within closed containers
software application, computer program; programmed
information which instructs the computer
as to its tasks
softwood any wood from an evergreen such as
pine, fir, hemlock or cypress
specimen an example of a particular class of
objects normally used when referring to natural
science collections
strategic planning sometimes called fonvard or
long-range planning - the process integrates the
physical, educational, fiscal, and personnel goals
of the museum or a particular collection area
stud a primary construction member of either
wood or metal
stud wall a wall construction method using
vertical and horizontal members (wood or metal)
over which a "skin" of paneling is applied
study collection objects collected and organized
for research or instructional use rather than for
exhibition
sub-title an intermediate level of written information
graphic, usually larger in typesize than a text
block, and used to differentiate or emphasize
sub-groupings within an exhibition
tactile exhibits exhibits that are designed to be
touched
tamper-proof requiring a specialized instrument
to operate
target audience any sub-group within a population
that can be identified by some common
factor or factors, and that is specifically chosen
as a group to be attracted
text or text block a written graphic that aids in
the interpretation of groups of objects or exhibition
sections
thematic exhibitions exhibitions based upon a
connecting theme that directs the choice of
collection objects and information content
thermohygrometer a device for measuring temperature
and humidity levels
tiles finishing elements made from a variety of
different materials and usually held in place with
an adhesive; ceramic, vinyl, and acoustic are a
few of the materials used
title sign a graphic, often combining both text
and pictorial design elements, usually placed at
the entry to a gallery to attract attention and to
announce the title of the exhibition
traffic flow refers to the movement of people
through a specified area, usually a gallery
two-by-four a USA standard for pre-cut wood
which actually measures about 1X in. (4.45 cm)
by 3!4 in. (9.52 cm)
UBC (universal building code): a standardized
set of specifications used as requirements
for materials and the design of building in the
USA
ultraviolet light see "W light"
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific,
and Cultural Organization
UNESCO Convention this Convention on the
Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit
Import, Export, and Transfer of Ownership of
Cultural Property aims to provide a process
among nations for regulating international trade
in cultural property
universal building code see "UBC"
UV light (ultraviolet light): the part of the electromagnetic
spectrum immediately above the visible
range; black light
VALS (Values and Lifestyles Segments): a generalized
socio-economic structure by Arnold
Mitchell that helps identify population segments,
interests, and motivations by their collective
values and lifestyles'
Values and Lifestyles Segments see "VALS"
vinyl adhesive glue used to adhere wallpapers and
vinyl wall coverings to surfaces
visible light spectrum see "VLS"
vitrine a closed, externally lit piece of exhibit
furniture, typically consisting of a base or pedestal
with a clear enclosure for displaying objects1
graphics

VLS (visible light spectrum): those frequencies
the electromagnetic spectrum to which the human
eye is visually sensitive: radiation that is perceived
as light

way finder any visual, tactile, or auditory clues or
reality; one's mental picture of the world con-
devices that assist visitors in orienting themselves
within a museum's facilities and surroundings,
inform the audience of their options, and help
them locate destinations

wet mount the process of attaching a photograph
other flat object to a surface using water-based
adhesives

world view an individual's rational model of
reality; one's mental picture of the world con-
sistinig of facts, raw perceptual data, concepts,
suppositions, theories, and generalizations





























Notes

Introduction
1 Loomis, Ross J. (1987) Museum Visitor
Evaluation: New Tool for Management,
Nashville, TN: American Association for State
and Local History, p. 160.

2 Vehaar, Jan and Han Meeter (1989) Project
Model Exhibitions, Holland: Reinwardt
Academie, p. 28.


1 The exhibition development process
1 Vehaar, Jan and Han Meeter (1989) Project
Model Exhibitions, Holland: Reinwardt
Academie, p. 4.


2 Audiences and learning
1 Mitchell, Arnold (1983) The Nine American
Lifestyles, New York: Warner Books.
2 Maslow, Abraham H. (1954) Motivation and
Personality Ne w York: Harper Pc Row.
3 Hood, Marilyn G. (1983) "Staying Away:
Why People Choose Not to Visit Museums,"
Museum News 61, 4 (April): pp. 50-7.
4 Conroy, Pete (1988) "Chapter 20: Cheap
Thrills and Quality Learning,'' in Steve
Bitgood (ed.) Visitor Studies - 1988, Jacksonville,
AL: Center for Social Design, p. 189.


3 Designing exhibitions
1 Loomis, Ross J. (1987) Museum Visitor pp. 5-9.
Evacuation: New Tool for Management,
Nashville, TN: American Association for State
and Local History, p. 161.


4 Controlling the exhibition
environment
1 Stolow, Nathan (1977) "The Microclimate: A
Localized Solution," Washington, DC:
American Association of Museums, p. 1.


6 Exhibition evaluation

1 Loomis, Ross J. (1987) Museum Visitor Evaluation:
New Tool for Management, Nashville,
TN: American Association for State and Local
History, p. 202.
2 ibid., p. 203
3 Screven, C. G. (1977) "Some Thoughts on
Evaluation." The Visitor and the Museum,
Washington, DC: American Association of
Museums, p. 31.
4 Loomis, op cit., p. 202
5 Loomis, op cit., p. 202.
6 Screven, C. G. (1976) "Exhibit Evaluation: A
Goal-Referenced Approach." Curator 19,
4 (December): pp. 271-90. '
7 Barker, R. G. (1963) The Stream of Behavior,
New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts; Barker,
R. G. (1965) "Explorations in Ecological Psychology,"
American Psychologist 20: pp. 1-14.
8 Wolf, Robert L. (1980) "A Naturalistic View
of Evaluation." Museum News 58, 1 (September):
pp. 3945.
9 Wolf. Robert L. and Barbara L. Tymitz
(1979) A Preliminary Guide for Conducting
Naturalistic Evaluation in Studying Museum
Environments, Washington, DC: Office of
Museum Programs, Smithsonian Institution,
1 Loomis, Ross J. (1987) Museum Visitor pp. 5-9.
Hoop, Marilyn G. (1983) "Staying Away:
Why People Choose Not to Visit Museums,"
61, 4 (April): pp. 50-7.

11 Alt, M. B. and K. M. Shaw, (1984) "Charac-
eristics of Ideal Museum Exhibits," British
Juonma1 of Psychology 75: pp. 25-36.
12 Loomis, op cit., p. 209, adapted from Shettel,
Harris H. and P. C. Reilly (1968) "An pp. 13-15,
Evaluation of Existing Criteria for Judging the
Quality of Science Exhibits," Curator 11, 2:
pp. 137-53.

7 Storyline and text development

1 Matelic, Candace T. (1984) "Successful
Interpretive Planning," video, Nashville, TN:
American Association for State and Local
History.
2 Kerans, John (1989) "Writing with Style,"
ITC Desktop 2 (May-June): pp. 79-80.
3 Serrell., Beverly 119851. Making Exhibit
Labels: A Step-by-step Guide Nashville, TN:
American Association for State and Local
History, p. 65.

Glossary


1 Ferree, H. (ed.) (n.d.) Groot praktijkboek
voor effective communicate, Antwerp,
pp. 13-15.
2 verhaar, jan and Han Meeter(1 989) project
pp. 137-53. Academic, p. 26.
3 International Council of Museums (ICOM)
(1990) Statues. page 1, Article 1 -Name and
Legal Status, paragraph 1.
4 Maslow, Abraham H. (1954) Motivation and
Personality New York: Harper & Row.
5 ICOM, OD. cit., page 1, Article 2 -Definitions,
paragraph 1.
6 Mitchell, Arnold (1983) The Nine American
Lifestyles, New York: Warner Books.































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Index





accessibility 62. 63
accession 159, 164; number 85; or
registration number 140
account maintenance 16
accountability 13
acid free 159
acquisition 88, 159
acrylic paint 159
active participation 26
adult audience 53
affective evaluation 100; factors 99,
100
affective learning 100, 159
agates 128
air conditioning system 70
airborne chemicals 72
alliteration 112
Alt, M. B. 101
alternative behavior 52
analogies 11 8
angle iron IS9
angle iron 134
announcements 88
anodized metal 159
Apple Macintosh 139
application I59
appraisal 159
appropriate behavior 111
architect's rule 159
artifact 159
artificial light 79
as-built 64
ascenders 126. 128
assessment 10, 13, 16, 18, 95, 100;
assessment phase 18
asymmetry 36, 61
attendance figures 92
attention span 52
audience 1, 19, 20,23, 94, 96, 98,
104. 159: assessment 13:
atteirion31,1 02; attention
span 115; composition 98;
development 20; evaluation 94;
needs 10, 19; retention 31;
suggestion 12; surveys 96
audio devices 63
audiovisual: devices 23. 159;
features 95
automated information systems 134
automating the exhibition process
141
automation 126. 133
auxiliary printed materials 115
aversion to darkness 52
back-lighting 121, 136
back-lit text 121
balance 32, 36, 58
Barker, R. G. 99
behavior 2. 3. 19. 25., 26., 43., 49
51, 99, 101, 160
behavioral/cultural norms 99
biological organisms 67
black light 165
blockbuster exhibitions 88, 159
blow-up 130
blueprints 64, 145, 96 5, 103, 131
bold text, bolding 124, 126, 130
hooking 83
box-in-a-box (see Figure 4.1) 68,
69, 79,159
brain function 28-30, 31, 35
brainstorming sessions 103
brightness 79
British Museum of Natural History
101
broadcast media 89
brochures 88, 115, 126
bubble jet printers 126
budgets, budgeting 15, 87;
information for exhibit checklist
86
budgetary control 16
buffers 81, 159
buffering 77, 80; agents 70, 80:
capabilities 81; natural 163
camera-ready artwork 126
cancellation provisions 85
captions 114
care furniture 159
catalog 84, 88, 111, 110, 115, 138;
number 85, 114
cataloging 159
ceiling grid 159
centre line alignment 57
centered text 122
channels 12, 63, 104, 115, 131
checklist 86, 87, 88; of activities
86
chromaphilic behavior 52
climate control 70
clip art 137
close-captioned videos 63
coating 159
cognitive evaluation testing 100
cognitive learning 30, 159
collecting spaces 49
collection 1, 2, 3.4, 9, 10, 16, 82,
88, 114, 138, 140, 160;
acquisition 12; activities
96; care 12, 67, 70, 77, 81, 104;
inventories 76; items 84, 114,
135; loans 85; maintenance 81;
management 15, 17, 67, 76,
105, 140; manager 16, 110,
160; methodologies 98; object
14, 16, 17, 30, 67, 72, 76, 77,
80, 82, 87, 106, 109, 139; pests
76; records 139; safety 43, 76,
81
collective medium 160
color 32, 33, 34, 35, 53, 56, 134;
computers 137; scheme 53;
sketches 64
comfort 24, 56, 160
commercial exhibit 2
communicating 95, 117; basic
information 118; ideas 64, 104;
preferences 126
communication 3,4,6, 12, 14, IS,
28, 30, 64, 82, 86, 88, 92, 93,
97,108,115,117,119,131,160
communication abilities 137

مطالب صفحه های 174و175
temperature 16, 67, 70; requirements
69
temporary exhibino8n2s
terminating stage 18
territorial space 49
text 135, development 105;
preparation 110
text-based communication 119
text block 165
textual communication 118
texture 23,35
thematic exhibitions , 165,
images 136
thermohygrometer 70, 165
third-person interpretation I19
thirty-minute limit 52
three-dimensional 55; objects 55,
61
tile 165
time 139; management 86;sheet
17.R.
timeline 15, 86, 87, 88
timing 97, 100
title: signs 110, 111. 136, 165; text
109
topical divisions 104, 106
touch behavior 43; screens 134
touchable resources 63
traces of past behavior 100
trackball 134
tracking 100
traffic flow 165; approaches 53
training: docents 10. 16
transitional space 49
transfer letters 125
transitional spaces 49, 53
transportation 85, 86; arrangements
16
travelling exhibition services 85
trunk exhibits 17
turning to the right 51
two-by-four 165
two-dimcnstonal5 5; objects 55
Tymitz, Barbara L. 99
typography 113, 119, 121, 126,
130, 136; enlargement/reduction
formulae 131, serif and sans serif
fracas 126
UBC 165
ultraviolet (UV) 33, 79, 165,
filtering materials7 9
value 32
Values-and-Lifestyles segments
(VALS) 21, 165
vertically oriented text block
123
video display terminal 734
videotape 101
viewing height 43, 46
vinyl adhesive 165
Visible Light Spectrum (VLS) 166
visible light 1.01
visitor: behavior 101; interviews
98
visitor-related goals 99
visual: balance 56; direction 56;
disabilities 13; impact 56;
language 118; mass 56;
models 132: reasoning 27;
weight 56
virr1i6nc5 16, 69, 72, 77, 80, 81,
wet mount 166
wheelchairs 39, 63
Wolf, Robber 99
word processing 138
worldview 27-8, 99, 166
"x" height 128
x-ray visualization 27