Monday, May 20, 2013
Emerald City
Title: Emerald city.
Article Author: Farruh Yusupov.
Date: 19.12.2012
Content
I. Introduction.
II. Origin of the ancient population of the city of Samarkand
II A. Languages of the aryans
III. Sogdian
III. A. Language
IV. Achaemenid empire
IV A. Ancient languages
IV. B. Language of the persians
IV. B. Writing
V. Empire of Alexander of Macedon
V. A. Language
VI. Sassanid empire
VI. A. Language
VI. B. Writing
VII. Turkic khanate. Western turkic khanate. Chinese
VII. A. Language
VIII. The Arab caliphate
VIII. B. Writing
IX. Smaragdos – emerald
X. Conclusion
XI. References
XI. Bibliographical material
I. Emerald ñity. Introduction.
In this research work will be considered the semantics and etymology of the city Samarkand. Samarkand was the link between Europe and Asia in the figurative and literal sense. A long time ago ancestors of the modern Samarkand`s townsmen lived in valley of the river Zarafshan. This seems like a rational decision of sogdians who lived over 3 000 years ago. Aqueducts (roman water supply system), the channels in the city did not exist at this time. As is well known to the river went the watering animals and in the river were a fish, which was more affordable food, than having a meat of wild animals. The value of the river was an important factor in the treatment and prevention of diseases. In ancient times, people even died from dysentery. These conditions are almost ideal for a settlement of people who could live more than 3000 years.
The earliest historical evidence indicating the existence of settlements of in the valley of the Zarafshan are given in the Avesta, the zoroastrian cult book. Scientists claim that the city "Marakand" originated in VIII century BC.
For linguistic research, there is a very important factor linking the tribe - a language and every language, in turn, divided nationality into ethnic - group. The most famous and ancient population of Samarkand were Sogdian who were members of the Iranian tribes through migration have settled in Central Asia (4). Civil wars forced the weaker tribes to leave a nomadic life and look for the best places to live. From the Pamir mountains in Tajikistan up to Bukhara, which is located in Uzbekistan, stretches Zarafshan river (in greek language Politimed), which became a haven for migrating tribes from the northwest (Chapter II) (4). In towns and villages of Bukhara and Samarkand still live many tajiks who speak in the local dialect of tajik language which mixed with uzbek and Russian language. In Tajikistan, there is still a Sughd province. In some cities, such as Zafaroobod people still speaks in yagnob language (dialect of sogdian language). In Samarkand, there a great part of the population consists of the iranians. Absolutely an important factor in determining the origin of the city's name is a style of naming city by they self. We mean the city`s name which called by the indigenous population. Some cities founded and renamed by conquerors (Jebus to Jerusalem), the other conquerors self-adapted natives names in their own way to get closer to local culture (Chach to Shash). For cause of making a great research we have to delve deep into the centuries. The main important tool in the study is a comparison and the linguistic; geographic; graphic; historical data analysis.
The essence of scientific inquiry is that in this paper compiles many famous scientific achievements that were made by dozens, even hundreds of years ago. But none of previous hypothesis has not gained the status of scientific theory, verified by scientific facts and scientific evidence. Íîâèçíà äàííîé ðàáîòû â òîì, ÷òî, äî ñèõ ïîð òàéíà íàçâàíèÿ ãîðîäà íå áûëà íè êåì íàó÷íî ðàñêðûòà. Êðîìå òîãî íå áûëî ñîáðàíî âîåäèíî íàó÷íûå äàííûå èç ñïåêòðà ñëåäóþùèõ ñìåæíûõ íàóê ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê ëèíãâèñòèêå: òåîëîãèÿ, èñòîðèÿ, ãåîãðàôèÿ, ãåîëîãèÿ, ýòíîãðàôèÿ, ëèíãâî - ñåìèîòèêà.
Samarkand is considered one of the oldest cities in the world. Nowadays age of the city is considered more than 2750 years. The scientific actuality of research in the disclosure of secret names of Samarkand interests many of scientists from around the world.
II. Origin of the ancient population of the city of Samarkand.
Aria (in the ancient indian language is arya-, in avestan language is airya-, in old persian language is ariya-) - the peoples of ancient Iran and ancient India (II-I millennium B.C.), who called themselves aryans, because of their habitat - Ariana. Their united by aryan language, which belongs to the Indo-European language family. Language and cultural differences defines that these tribes have from one ethos (nationality), which later broke up into small tribes. The scientists classify and name their descendants grand arian community (nationality of the forefathers of aryans), otherwise they called as indo - iranian peoples.
Scientists emphasize that protoarians (aryans before division into separate tribes) penetrated (4) from Andronovo culture (11) to the territory of Bactriano - Margian Archaeological Complex (12), where probably they conquered proto - aryan population which mixed with the aryans. Then some of these people start to move forward and conquer the south -east of India and south-west of India (Mitanni) (4).
Ancient monuments testify about the wholeness of the aryan nationality by avestan and vedic written sources. They indicate the ancient aryans were originally a single ethnic group.
The split between the indo - aryan and iranian branch starts in the second millennium BC (3).
Indo - Aryans - the nations also as iranians who speaks in indo - aryan languages. Areal of modern indo - aryan peoples mainly is Indian peninsula, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, the Middle East, Central Asia, Europe, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal and Maldives.
Basically, the structure of the iranian languages in which mainly are spoken in the south of the Central - asian region testifies that the linguistic admixture (linguistic units, words) of other languages in the iranian languages is almost absent. The other situation is in part of the Indian peninsula where they speak in indo - aryan languages. Also in the west of Iran, there are also traces of linguistic confusion. Iranian dialects have undergone adaptation as a result of their conquests, indo-aryans mixing with other tribes.
Modern scholars are not unreasonably believed that a common substrate, which lies at the basis of indo - aryan languages is the Bactriano - Margian archaeological complex. Bactriano - Margian civilization (12) is a civilization existed on the territory of Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan (mainly in the territory of ancient state Bactria) in the period 2200 -1700 years of B.C…. This culture was formed, apparently as a result of mixing of people of culture Namazga - tepe with crossed tribes (4), informant of the ancient aryan languages.
If we draw a parallel between the romance languages and indo - aryan, we can note an interesting detail. Despite of fact that latin language was basis of the english language but 30 percent of native english words (anglo- saxon, Pictish, german) are still in existence in the english language, and the rest is borrowed from Latin. In India, officials considered 22 different languages. That is basically a species of Indo-Aryan language with changes in the phonetic, lexical structure of language. And the Afghan languages, Pashto, Dari and Tajik retained almost completely its lexical, grammatical and stylistic language system. On the Aryan migrations (4) indicates that the inhabitants of this region is called the geographical area inhabited by the Aryans, who are still in use. For example, Sogd. Residents of the Indian peninsula, used in everyday geographical names that have come from the Avestan, the ancient Persian language.
The electronic encyclopedia Wikipedia clearly shows these examples: the word in Avestan language Aria Haroiuua, in Old Persian language Haraiva-«Ares" in the ancient Indian language Sarayu. Avestan word Haraxaiti, in Old Persian language sounds Harauvati-«Arachosia" on the ancient Indian language sounds Sarasvati.
II A. Languages of the Aryans.
The Aryan languages are currently divided into two branches. This nuristanskie languages (17) and Indo-Iranian languages, of which there are Iranian languages (6, 28). We are in the research focus on Indo-Iranian language branch.
Indo-iranian subbranch
Indo-aryan languages
Dardskie languages
The iranian Languages
Iranian languages (6) is divided into two types, too
Western languages: farsi, dari, tajik, kurdish, balochi, talysh
Oriental languages: pashto, the pamirs, ossetian
I ask you to note that the majority of the population living in the valley of the Zarafshan of Uzbekistan (Bukhara, Samarkand, in part Surkhandarya) said in broken Tajik. From this it follows that the indigenous people of Samarkand the Sogdian partially preserved their cultural value component - Indo-Aryan language. The Tajik language is derived from the Sogdian language. Sogdian language is derived from the Iranian language.
III. Sogdian.
Sogdians - is the Iranian nation inhabiting the territory of Sogdiana, located in the valley of the Zarafshan River, the area of modern Bukhara to Khujand.
The geographical position of Sogdiana have beneficial effects on cultural, economic exchange between peoples, civilizations east and west. In addition, the important trade routes (Silk Road) were in Sogdiana. Way of the caravan from the north was very difficult. In the Kazakh steppes of the climatic features, there were problems with the existence of oases, wells, and thereby sheds caravan (caravan parks on the way) cities. In the IV-VIII centuries Sogdians dominated trade between east and west, their trading colonies have been found far beyond Sogdiana - in particular, in what is now eastern China. Soviet orientalist wrote the following about the Sogdian Bartold VV: Sogdian trade in their cultural contribution to the region can be compared to "finikyanami Central Asia."
Due to its geographical position, the Sogdian language was used as a lingua franca - International (literally), the language spoken by the peoples of the Caspian Sea to Tibet. Linguistic traces of Sogdian felt in Turkic, Persian, in the form of loan words.
III. A. Language.
Avestan language (5) - a language in which you wrote the book Avesta. Avesta Zoroaster gathered followers after his death. Arshakidsky Valahsh king (probably Vologez I, I in. N. E.) Attempted to collect oral traditions of Zoroastrians. The date of writing 1200 - 600 BC. er .... The next of kin Avestan language (5) is the ancient Iranian language. Of - for a wide range distribution of Zoroastrianism in the Asian region Zoroastrian writings were written, and going for a long time. As a result, Avestan language (5) is also divided into two types: staroavestiysky language (Gat) (5.18) and mladoavestiysky language. Language Gat (5.18) is an archaic and semantically close Vedic language - the language of the Rigveda.
The first chapter of Avesta Videvdada (Fragard), some scholars of the west called "Geographic poem." This chapter contains a list of 16 areas inhabited by people (in the Avestan language asah - or otherwise soi?ra-), which are called on Avestan language Vahista (translated best). Mr. Noli suggests that these 16 countries correspond to those countries that recorded in the Avesta of the Buddhist Mahadzhanapad (?o?asa mahajanapada, VI century. BC), Jain and Sanskrit the national epic.
One of these countries - areas is Gava. Gava - Sogdian territory of residence (in the Avestan language Gaum yim su??o.saiian?m, translated as "permanent settlements, housing Sogdian"). That is in the Avestan language, "Havana" is referred to as "Sogdiana".
Before the mention of "Marokand" city also referred to as the settlement existed, but only in a different way. Sogdian and Avestan language supports their place of residence was called "Sughd". Once again it is worth noting, Sogdian and Avestan (5) are related languages and belong to the Indo-European family Indo-Iranian branch of Iranian group.
The father of history Herodotus is one of the Saka tribes (Turkic - speaking tribes) - neighbors Sogdian names as "saki - parasugudam" literally living for "Sogdiana" who lived in the Aral Sea basin in the lower reaches of the Syr Darya and Amu Darya. This is indirect evidence that demonstrates that the territory of modern Samarkand neighboring tribes, and also the Greeks called "Sugud" or "Sughd" according to the tribe. The most appropriate word for the translation of Sogdiana in alphabetic selection is a word in Farsi - "suht." This adjective is literally translated as burnt, hot. One of the most ancient cults practiced - Religions in Central Asia was Zoroastrianism. Their followers are called to another fire-worshipers. The fire was considered sacred in Zoroastrian elements. In this mythology was a symbol of fire vserazrushayuschy cleansing, the destruction of sin in man. I especially ask you to pay attention to the fact that the oldest mention of the tribal union - the city was found in the Avesta. Because many tribes can call your city (due to the original language may be), but most of all names derived from aboriginal self-indigenous population. In addition, special importance of the language in which was written "historical name registration" of the city. The main, state (using state power), the written language Sogdian was Avestan language. Thus, the ancient name of the town was "Sughd" - "the holy city (spiritually - purified) city."
IV. Achaemenid Empire
Persians - came from Indo-European Aryan nomadic tribes. In VII. ethnicity Persians (in Old Persian language parsa), has been named one of the major tribal groupings, who spoke Indo-Aryan language. As a result of the Aryan migration (4) of Central Asia and the Persian conquest of the Iranian plateau settle in the region of Anshan in Elam east of. Around the X century they conquered the city Pars (Persis - remained the territory of modern Fars) and begin to call themselves Persians.
Further, the mighty ruler Cyrus II in Asia creates (mainly due to the conquests of) the first, a powerful tribal alliance, which is named in honor of his dynasty - Achaemenid Empire. After his conquest of Sogdiana become one of the satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire.
IV A. Ancient Languages
Before parsing the language of the Achaemenid Empire, I propose to identify their origin and roots. After separation of the tribes (some tribes settled in Central Asia, while others continued their migration (4)) are separated as nuristanskie Languages (17) from the Indo-Iranian languages. Languages of the ancient Persians, who lived in what is now Iran, in turn, are divided into the following languages:
Mitanniyskoariysky ancient Indian (Vedic, Sanskrit)
Ancient Iranian (Avestan, the Persian)
As well we have identified and described above Avestan language (5) is akin to the Vedic language. Mitanni language is a close relative of the ancient Indian (language approach basically comes down to archaisms).
Most likely these two groups of extinct languages differed only in the phonetic system. Indeed, the proponents of these languages belong to one ethnic group and live in the same region. In general the roots of many words in this group are the same. A distinctive feature is supletivizatsiya words.
Written evidence of the existence of Mitanni Aryan language (XV-XIII centuries. BC. E.) Is a written source horse-breeding terminology hurritoyazychnogo state of Mitanni. Language of Mitanni was a lot of borrowed words in Akkadian language. What is the evidence of the close linguistic contact between these languages during the Achaemenid Empire.
The ancient Indian language is an early representative of the Indo-European languages, and is also considered akin to ancient Iranian languages (Avestan (5) and the Old Persian language), accounting for Indo-Iranian language nadvetv (15). The language is partly preserved in writing, and a literary language of the upper classes (13, 14).
This language is divided into the Vedic language (16) and Sanskrit. Vedic language in another language is called the Vedas. Most Vedic means of communication was the common people. Rigveda (1500-1300 gg. BC. E.) Was written in that language. Language of the Vedas was the spoken language of the population of Punjab. But with the spread of Zoroastrianism, intercommunication between communities, tribes, language of the Vedas became obsolete. The more extended the doctrine, especially in the language of the Vedas began to penetrate borrowing from other languages. Spoken forms were called Prakriti. This factor has forced the crack to the Prakrit language of the Vedas (Elementary) and Sanskrit (the literary language of the nobility) (13,14).
Prakrit, Prakriti (21,22) (prak?ti IAST translated as "the usual, simple") - Middle Indian languages and dialects used before the advent of Indian languages. Prakrit was the language of ordinary people (21). Known documents in Prakrit were the business records, recorded religious sermons, fiction (21).
Niyya - this northwestern prakritsky dialect. Most of the documents discovered in Eastern Turkestan recorded in writing "Kharosthi." Scientists suggest that Kharosthi - this script, which originated from the Aramaic alphabet. This script has been extended to the south of Central Asia, Northern India in the III century BC - IV century. Mr.. Oe.
At prakritskom language existed, the term "marakada" (semantics of the word - green), which in turn was borrowed from the Akkadian word "Barakah". But the Akkadian language was assimilated into Central Asia through the Persian conquest. Akin to Iranian ancient Indian language of language (15) used a Prakrit Aramaic alphabet (21) as well as the Sogdian language. Consequently, carriers of Sogdian and Prakrit infographics could read each other. True individual sounds and letters naturally evolved over time because of certain circumstances, but the consonant roots (the specifics of the Aramaic alphabet) the words were those. The name "Sogdiana" demonstrates that in Samarkand lived fierce adherents of Zoroastrianism. Another worth noting that Prakrit was developed and distributed by the Zoroastrians. Samarkand was the center of Zoroastrian culture. These facts are important links in the definition of a city "Marakad" in the empire of the Persians.
IV B. Language of the Persians.
The persian
Imperial aramaic
Elamite
Akkadian
The Persian language, then transformed into sredneiranskie languages (srednepersidsky, Parthian, Bactrian, Sogdian, Khwarizmian, hotanosaksky). Consequently, the Sogdian and Persians also found a common language, that is, they had almost a common language (akin to the ancient Iranian language), which confirms the borrowing of words from the ancient Indian language (15) in the Persian language and later in the Sogdian language.
In everyday life and in the Achaemenid Empire was large, as befits a few languages. Because of the constant wars to expand the territory of the empire of the Persians did not have time to study ancient Persian language of new tribes. At this time the empire, science and education had not gone through its rapid development. For our research, we should pay attention to the Imperial Aramaic.
Imperial Aramaic as the language used in the lingua - franca in the Middle East. But it is important that the Akkadian language was also one of the numbers used (official) language of the empire. Akkadian language is akin to the Hebrew language (vostochnosemitskoy language group). This indicates that borrowing the Hebrew word "Bereket" in Akkadian, "Barakah". Modified only syntagm (the words, combined grammar - semantics - the phonetic type) "a" to "e".
IV B. Writing.
On the territory of Sogdiana Sogdian used graphics. Sogdian letter - came out of Syrian literature, which in turn has occurred with the Aramaic script. But all these alphabets originated from the Phoenician graphics. The main point of my proposition is that almost all of the above text scripts recorded with left and right had almost similar graphemes. But the value to us becomes the following information: all these alphabets consist of consonants graphemes (letters). The truth of time in the Syrian alphabet, Sogdian alphabet appears a few vowels.
That is, as described above in the word "D` rkndh "(1) is written as a vowel only bow" and ". After all, from the Aramaic and graphics also borrowed "technology" with a record of adaptation. Due to the record type consonant consonant and small changes in the word "marakad" changed as "cm` rkndh "(1). But first things first. The second root of the "candidate" of the word in this word appears after the Sassanian influence. Before the Sassanid city was called "Marakad."
Importance for the historical analysis of the acquired division of the Syrian Christian church into two denominations: the Nestorians and Jacobites. During the split, each of these churches there is a type of font.
Vostochnosiriysky font ("Nestorian", "Chaldean" or "Assyrian") appeared at the beginning of ... VII. In Syriac font called madn?aya (madynhayya - literally translated "east").
Aramaic alphabet became widespread arbitrary due to the fact that the Iranian people have written in Aramaic, but also after the Iranian transliteration of the words in the Aramaic alphabet in Aramaic and Iranian press oneself words, getting kind geterogramm (the words are read by the Iranian pronunciation) (7) .
Of ancient Judea penetrate not only the alphabet, and Aramaic, but also religion and science. Traces of the Nestorians, in the form of text entries found in Central Asia. In some graves on the territory of Uzbekistan found evidence of Christian symbolism. By Nestorianism and other religions are not only treated with tolerance, but these beliefs openly popularized during the reign of the Sassanid (20,25,26,27).
But most importantly Nestorians brought not only Christianity in Central Asia, but the Holy Bible, from which the population of the Empire learned of the above remarks, "Bereket".
In the cornerstone alphabet (for many of the fundamental diagram) and the widespread Aramaic letter written only consonant characters (letters). A vowel sounds when reading interpreting every reader, the people in their own way. From the Hebrew word "Bereket" is borrowed in the Akkadian language. The Persians use to change the word phoneme "e - e 'for frequently used in the ancient Persian language sound" a ". Note, however only the phoneme (sound). Further, the Akkadian word "barraktu" goes into Sanskrit, and it sounds and is written as "maracatu." There are other forms of the words on the ancient Indian language, "marokat" "maracatu," "marakad", "maragdam." One of the ancient monuments of art shows gem "Marokat" in the "Legend of the Indian kingdom." Allow me to call this situation a phonetic adaptation. Until now, India has 22 official languages. These languages are mainly the dialects of the ancient Indian language, which are partly different sounds, morphological structure. On the Prakrit word will sound like "maragada" or "marakada." The final version of the following as "Marokand." Do not forget that in a multi Achaemenid Empire was only four official languages. In the final chapter we consider the meaning of the word, which brings together the following group of words. For a relatively - a comparative analysis, we will remove each box, which will later drop out due to circumstances, which we discuss below, "Bereket barraktu, Barkat, maracatu, maracatu, maragdam, maragada, marakada, smarkand, Marakanda" and, as a result of Samarkand .
V. Empire of Alexander of Macedon
Ancient Macedonia (Greek ?????????) - an ancient Greek state with its capital at Edessa.
The town was first mentioned under the name of Samarkand "Marakad" in the writings of Greek and Roman historians (2) - biographies of Alexander of Macedon, who conquered Samarkand, who by this time a well-developed and fortified city in 329 BC. er ....
Alexander of Macedonia to consolidate his power by actively pursues a policy of Hellenization (mixed culture of the natives with Greek culture). Alexander of Macedon frankly admits in a letter to his teacher, Aristotle, the parity of Greek science and culture with local culture. In Greek, even borrowed prakritskoe word "maragada," which goes into Greek as "smaragdos", in another embodiment, "maragdos" to the original Hebrew denotation of the word. Ending «??» - oo is a typical Greek words ending nouns. As the Greek language has acquired the status of scientific language (medicine, biology), culture (theater, architecture), so in antiquity the word "Smaragdos" passed as a borrowed word in many languages. For example, in the Russian language as the emerald.
V. A. Language.
The indo-european family
Ancient greek
VI. Sassanid Empire
Sassanid Empire (the Persian language s?s?nij?n) (20,25,26,27) - this Persian Empire, which was located on the territory of Iran, formed after the fall of the dynasty of the Parthian dynasty Arshakids (25).
There Sasanid empire from 224 to 651 per year (20,25,26,27). Scientists disagree about whether that was ruled Samarkand Sassanian empire? City in V. Mr.. Oe. was ruled Ephtalites. Ephtalites prevented the seizure of the territory of Sogdiana Sassanids. But in 560 State Ephtalites splits. However, the Turks captured the city of Samarkand only in 567 AD The reason for the collapse of the state of war with a Ephtalites sasanidkimi and the Turkic rulers. Perhaps in a further seven years from 560 to 567 year Samarkand was ruled by the Sassanids? Cause a short reign the Sassanid likely and there is a lack of detailed records of Samarkand. But in the annals of the language of Pahlavi town called "Smarkand."
VI A. Language.
Middlepersian
Aramaic
Srednepersidsky language (Pahlavi - translated as "the language of the Parthians"). The name "parsik" in Middle is translated as "Persian". Sredneiransky language belongs to the south-western language group.
VI B. Writing.
In the kingdom of the Sassanids used two recording systems that are based on the Aramaic of graphics:
Pahlavi
Manichean
In the second part of the word Samarkand - the root of "Candidate" is a stressed syllable. Korneslovo "settlement." Further there is a phonetic adaptation, which is used for convenience, storage and use of the words of a native language. At the end of the word "Kent" is stunning sound "t" sound in "d". A vowel "e" is changed to the consonant for Persian-speaking people grapheme "a". But why add the Turkic word "city" because prakritskoe word "Marakad" has no sound and the letter "n". The Sassanids called their country "Eronshahr." Literally translated, "City of the Iranians." The word "Shahr" translated into Turkic «sehir» - «city." In the old days were not taken based immigrant visas, but were frequent migration (4) of whole tribes, including the conquest and otvoevatelnye trips between neighboring communities. Scientists suggest that the conquest and unification (predominantly Turkic tribes, Sakas, Massagets) dahami due to start the Parthian era (25). Dahi (in Persian ????, in Latin, in Greek ????, Daoi or ????, Daai) - the name of the union of Turkic nomadic tribes who lived in Central Asia. Parthia was not only a neighbor but also the enemy of the Persians, but also the King of Parthia Mithradates I around 170 BCE -138/137. Oe. won the state Seleucid satrapy east - Persia (southeastern Iran). This was the city of the satrapy Istakhr that the administrative part of the modern shahrestan Marvdasht, Fars province, which is also located in Iran. But the main thing is that this city is native to the Sasana and his son Ardashir Papakana, founder of the kingdom of the Sassanids (25). At the time of Ardashir Papakana Istakhr childhood was ruled by the Turkic-Iranian tribes, which in turn owned by Parthia (25). Hence the name Persian and Turkic kingdom of the Sassanids - "Eronshahr." Due to the short rule of the Sassanids in "Marakad" city acquires in its composition Turkic root "Candidate." But because this second root of the city began to lose its basic meaning of the name. This was the neglect of the word "Marakad" long 25 centuries (2500 years). But should also pay attention to the letter "x" in Sogdian version of the word. As described above, traces of Sanskrit is clearly traced in the territory of Sogdiana. In the past, Samarkand was conquered by the rulers of the Kushan Empire. In the Kushan Empire spread widely Greco - Buddhism (23). On the coins of the Kushan rulers even portrayed Buddhist deity. Sanskrit grapheme "c" Sogdians voiced and recorded as "x" (in Russian) (19). Consequently transliteration Sogdian words "See` rkndh "(1) in Sanskrit might sound like" Smaraknsa. " Sogdians instead of the letter "s" on the last syllable used an "x". Do not forget also that, in Sogdian script was not originally there were vowels, but vowels were pronounced. Basically, the sound "and" Indo-Aryan languages dominated. Until today there is a proper name "Smaransa" in indoyazychnyh people.
VII. Turkic khanate. Western Turkic Khanate. China's Tang Dynasty.
Turkic Khanate, Khanate Tyurkyutsky (Kektyurk - Celestial Turks) - the state association in the territory of Central Asia. The founder of the family believe Hagan Ashina.
In the years 567-658, Samarkand, Sogdian being the center of possession, was according to the Turkic and Turkic khanate after the break (8,9,10) to become part of the West-Samarkand Khanate.
VII A. Language
The main language Khanate was an ancient Turkic.
Altaic family
Turkic sub branch
Oguz group
It should be noted that the Turkic form of the name Samarkand is markedly different from the others. The Turks did not adapt the name of the city as other nations of course - for the differences between language groups. If the previous tribes were largely Persian - speaking and their language differed only by a pronunciation, and writing some of the characteristics, the Turks had more language and cultural differences. The inscription on the "Kaaba of Zoroaster" (262 AD. E.) Persian King Shapur I called the Tashkent oasis as Chach, Shash later call it. But with the conquest of the Turkish city of Shash (modern Tashkent) is transformed into Binkent. In turn, the Turks completely transformed, but not translated like other nations, Pahlavi name "Smarkand" in "Simizkent." Again, here clearly, visible phonetic adaptation of sound "a" to "and." In 658-659 years the main land of West Kahanat were occupied by Chinese troops.
The city was briefly transferred to the jurisdiction of the Chinese Tang tribe. But in 704 West Turkic Khanate and at the same time, Samarkand is released from a Chinese dependency. Although the Chinese government was short in Samarkand, but still preserved in the Chinese information about Samarkand. The Chinese have adapted the Turkish name of Samarkand Semizkent - "a rich settlement," in "C - E - ce - ch," translating the name of the city in that same vein as "fat, rich city."
Chinese tribes belong to the Turkic - Mongolian family. Old Turkic word "kent - the city" have transformed the Chinese in the "ch". In modern Chinese still used in the value of the Turkic word "kent - Quanshi ??».
VIII. The Arab Caliphate
The Arab Caliphate (Arabic ????? ???????) - Empire of Arab tribes (the Semitic tribes), which arose and was finally formed in the large gains in the VII-IX centuries. and led by caliphs.
In 712 the city of Samarkand was conquered by Arab invaders led by Kuteyba ibn Muslim.
VIII A. The origin of writing.
Canaanite letter
Phoenician
Aramaic
The syrian
The arab
The Arabs after the conquest of the city borrow the name of the local population - Sogdian. As described above, namely the Late Sogdian alphabet already existed not only consonant type of record, but also recorded and vowel graphemes (laryngeal bow). This period coincides with the development of Arabic script. Obvious signs of mixing linguistic, cultural, commercial, scientific achievements of many Middle Eastern nations, before the Arab Caliphate.
Progenitor of the Arabic alphabet as many Middle Eastern alphabets is the Phoenician alphabet. As well as all related alphabets that have occurred in the Hebrew alphabet, Arabic alphabet consonant inherited record type. As later alphabets, the Arabic alphabet developed record vowel. No letters, but letters, vowel letter "alef" is the initial vowel the Arabic alphabet. This letter is borrowed from the Hebrew alphabet graphemes "aleph." Glottal stop, glottal stop - it's a dull guttural consonant, is obtained by closing the vocal cords, then cords under air pressure quickly opened. This grapheme became independent phonetic letter having its one value and recorded separately from the rest of the letters.
Sogdian self "Sm` rkndh "(1) was probably changed into Arabic as Samarkand. Vowels remained, as it should be ignored, but the glottal stop has acquired great importance from the Arabs. That is, the value of acquired laryngeal Smyk vowel letter "alef", which sounds a long "a". A Pahlavi addition of "Candidate" also borrows from Sogdian prisustviem strong semantic link (values) of the word "city". But lost its original denotation prakritsky. As a result, a Sogdian word 'see' rkndh "(1) the city was transformed into an Arabic word" Samarkand ". Perhaps the Arabs attempted adaptation trasnkodirovaniya (total change in the words of an Arabic word that is similar to alphabetic, semantic service). "Samar" translated into Arabic as "useful", "necessary" and if we add "Candidate", then get "Samarkand - Excellent city." But in any case, this hypothesis has never Research (written source of the time) basis. You can iterate through a lot of options, but the Turkish translation of the name of the city has since been adopted as official. The Armenian historian of the XIII century Sumbat, writes that "Smarand" means "fat or fat city." Spanish ambassador, passed in Samarkand, Tamerlane, Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, informs us that the name of the capital of the empire of Amir Temur Samarkand, came from the Turkish language - "Simeskint," which means "village rich".
IX. Smaragdos – Emerald.
Finally we got to the most important chapter in which we try to solve the mystery, which we kept throughout the research, namely the primordial meaning of Samarkand "Marokand."
In the sacred christian science (in which we see, read a little below the head), the historical chronicle of the Bible have any information about gemstone ???? («Bareket", "Barkat"). Also biblical name Varak transformed in arabic language in Barack. The hebrew word “Barakat” borrowed and translated in arabic language as “blessed”. Most likely the word “Barakat” passed into arabic from the hebrew language. But also the semantics of the Arabic word "bark" (translated lightning) is almost identical to the Hebrew meaning "shining". And translated into Hebrew, these words simply - "Emerald". It is noteworthy that in the modern Arabic and Persian language to refer to the word "emerald" uses the word remotely resembling the word Samarkand Turkic words «Zumurrud, Zumrud, Zumrut». In the affinity of these words we will make later. Some scientists do not unreasonably assume that the ancient Turkic runic script (Orkhon - yenisey script) occurred from Sogdian cursive letters by changes in graphemes (letters). In the initial version of the Sogdian alphabet perception of vowels, was dependent on the reader. Consonant type allow the reader to interpret the vowels in their own way. If the Persians had the letter "e" in "Bereket" changed to "a" as in the word "Maracatu", the Turks with the letter "u" as in the word "Zumurut." The phrase "with", as in the word "Smarkand" becomes voiced in the letter "z", and the syntagm "a" as in the word "Izmaragd" to "y" in the end we get the word "Zumurud."
The earliest mention of the findings found in the emerald valley Pansher in Afghanistan (ancient Bactria).
Obviously, the Persians Sogdian fort was named an emerald from the fact that the territory of ancient Bactria and the valley of the Zarafshan River mined emeralds.
In 1. BC Pliny the Elder wrote: "Smaragd has twelve genera, - Pliny the Elder wrote. - Nobles are Scythian, named for the fact people in whose are. Immediate praise and have a place to stay! Bactrian ... but they write that they are much smaller than the Scythian ... "
X. Conclusion.
In summary we can write the entire list of famous names of Samarkand.
The name of the town is named Approximate date title Language Written language group value
words
Sughd 702 BC. Oe. Sogdian Sogdian Aramaic Iranian holy city
Marakad IV BC. Oe. Persian imperial Aramaic alphabet - Prakrit Aramaic letter Iranian Emerald City
Smarkand IV century BC. Oe. Sassanids srednepersidsky Pahlavi,
Manichean
Iran -
Smaransa III in BC. Oe. Kushans Sanskrit Greek Ancient Aramaic based on -
See `rkndh IV century BC. Oe. Sogdian Sogdian Sogdian Aramaic based on the Iranian -
Simizkent 576 n year. Oe. Turks ancient Turkic Orkhon-Yenisey Ancient Runes rich city
Si mi ce ch VI century AD. Oe. Chinese Chinese Chinese writing Sino - Tibetan family rich city
Samarkand 712 n. Oe. Arab Arabic Arabian alphabet tsentralnosemitskaya -
Emerald City (English - Emerald city) - the city, a fictional Leimen Frank Baum. Soviet readers to the public the story of the "Emerald City" was presented by the writer Alexander Volkov in a series of similar works of this city located in the country "Oz." LF Baum suggested that the fictional town of them is a far continent surrounded by desert. But who knows, LF Baum told the writer of the 19th century folk legends about the history of the existing to this day in Uzbekistan?
In the end we can only thank the entire scientific world, who published best opening of Samarkand in the electronic encyclopedia Wikipedia.org; historical and tourist resources of the Internet, online translator Google; scientific blogs. Most gratifying that the name of the city of Samarkand greeks called emerald gem - "Smaragdos" and “Maragdos”. Thanks to the Greek culture, Samarkand has acquired the status of common nouns. Samarkand began its global journey in a borrowed word from the Hebrew word «??????». Then, the semitic word «baraq - ??????» migrate into the Achaemenid Empire. It is important that the Greek word "emerald" borrows prakritsk word "marakad" - the first name of Samarkand. Through Greek and Turkic language word Samarkand lives in almost every language in the world not only as a city, but also as an emerald. In Latin it «smaragdus»; the spoken Latin language is «esmaralda, esmaraldus»; in Italian language is «smeraldo»; Spanish is «esmeralda»; French is «emeraude»; in Middle English is «Emeraude» , in the Georgian language is «???????? - zurmukhti»; in the Armenian language is «zmruxt» (24).
This evidence suggests that Samarkand is part of a global human heritage.
XI. Reference.
1. Lurie PB Historical and linguistic analysis of the Sogdian place names. Diss. on soisk. uch. of Art. Candidate. phyla. of Sciences. St Petersburg. 2004 .- Pp. 39, 110
2. Quintus Curtius Rufus, Arrian.
3. Mallory, J.P. (1989), In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth, London: Thames & Hudson
4. A. Christensen. Le premier chapitre du Vendidad et l'histoire primitive des tribus iraniennes, Copenhagen, 1943, pp. 78ff.
5. K. Hoffmann. Avestian language.
6. Lassen, Christian. 1936. Die Altpersischen Keilschrift von Persepolis. Entzifferung des Alphabets und Erklarung des Inhalts. Bonn: Weber. S. 182.
7. IM Dyakonov Interpretation of Iranian languages, enjoyed writing geterograficheskoy / Frederick II Decoding lost writings and languages. M., 1961, str.190-204.
8. Sucking Koshala History of Kazakhstan. Reference Manual / Bibimara Omarova - Almaty: "Ol-Jas baspasy", 2007. - S. 22-23. - 112. - ISBN 9965-651-56-6.
9. Methodological recommendations for the preparation of students to UNT in the history of Kazakhstan / OS Lokotinova Grebenyuk Yu P - Almaty: "Institute training and retraining of the education system", 2005. - S. 26. - 100.
10. Methodological recommendations for the preparation of students to UNT in the history of Kazakhstan / OS Lokotinova Grebenyuk Yu P - Almaty: "Institute training and retraining of the education system", 2007. - S. 14-15. - 70 seconds.
11. Denisov I. Some problems of the Bronze Age Archaeology of the Volga-Urals and Vedic-Avestan stories / / In the heart of Eurasia: Proceedings / Ed. Ed. VA Ivanov. - Sterlitamak: Sterlitamak. Gos. ped. Inst, 2001. S. 4-21.
12. Sarianidi, V. I. (1994). «Preface», in Hiebert, F. T.: Origins of the Bronze Age Oasis Civilization of Central Asia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-87365-545-1
13. See GM Bongard-Levin, G. Ilyin. India in ancient times. M., 1985. - P.24, 39.
14. See Beshem AL Miracle, which was India, trans. from English. Moscow, 1977
15. Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1990. - The article "Indo-European languages."
16. T. J. Elizarenkova. Vedic language. M., 1987. - Pp. 9.
17. Edelman, DI Nuristanskie languages / Dardskie nuristanskie and languages. A series of 'Languages of the World. " M. 1999, p. 99
18. Prods Oktor skj?rvO. Iran vi. Iranian languages and scripts. Earliest Evidence
19. Gafurov A. Stories about names. "Irfon", 1968. Page 61.
20. Lukonin VG Sasanid power in III-V centuries. / / History of the Ancient World. The book. 3. The decline of ancient societies / ed. IMDiyakonov, W. Nero, SI Sventsitsikoy. M., 1982.
21. Vertogradova VV, Prakriti, MA, 1978
22. Vertogradova V. Prakriti. Ans. Ed. T. J. Elizarenkova - 2nd ed. - M.: Izdat. Firm "Eastern. Lit. "RAN, 2002. - 104. - (Languages of Asia and Africa).
23. Borovkov, LA Kushan Empire (in ancient Chinese sources). M., 2005, ISBN 5-89282-265-6.
24. Harper, Douglas. "Emerald". Online Etymology Dictionary. Translated from English.
25. Cambridge history of Iran. Vol. 3 (1). The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods / Ed. By E. Yarshater. Cambridge; L.; N.-Y.; New Rochelle; Melbourne; Sydney, 1983. Translated from English.
26. Christensen A. L'Iran sous les Sassanides. Copenhague, 1944. Translated from English.
27. Paterson W.F. The Sassanids. Translated from English.
28. Oranskiy I.M. Iranian languages. Moscow, 1963
XI. Bibliographical material
The Bible. Modern Bible Society, 2002.
Caucasus and neighboring countries between Iran and Rome. The Christianization of Caucasus / / History of the Ancient World. The book. 3. The decline of ancient societies / ed. IMDiyakonov, W. Nero, SI Sventsitsikoy. M., 1982.
Herodotus. The history. I 153; III 93; VI 113; VII 9, 62, 64, 96, 184; VIII 113; IX 31, 71, 113.
Strabo. Geography, XI 8.2-9, XI 9.1, Eng. text / / Project Perseus
Diodorus of Sicily. 1.94.2
Pliny the Elder. Natural history of XXX 2, 3
Collegiate Dictionary and Vasmer Burlak-and-Starostin
LA Lelekov Avesta in modern science, MA, 1992
Sarianidi VI Bactria through the haze of centuries. M.; idea from 1984 .- 159., Fig. And maps. 16 liters. silt.
History of the Ancient East. The book. 2. M., 2004.
History of the Orient. T. 2. East in the Middle Ages. M., 2000.
K. Antonova, G. Bongard-Levin MM, GG Kotovsky. History of India (short essay). M., Thought, 1973.
V Barthold, Iran. Historical Overview
Bartold VV Works in 9 volumes. T. 7. M., 1971.
zforum.net/index.php?topic=3426.95;wap2
Marcellinus Proceedings of the Eastern Branch of the Russian Archaeological Society (ZVORAO). New series. T. II (XXVII). St Petersburg., 2006.
Ammianus Marcellinus. The history. St Petersburg., 1996.
Illich-Svitych VM ancient Indo-European-Semitic language contacts
Illich-Svitych VM Problems of Indo-European linguistics. Studies on the comparative historical grammar of Indo-European languages. M., 1964.
Diringer D, Alphabet. - Moscow: Editorial URSS, 2004.
Frederick I. The history of writing. - Moscow: Editorial URSS, 2004.
Voeikov AI Vodovozov V., Richter, D. - Turkey / / Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 tons and 4 additional).. - St. Petersburg., 1890-1907.
Lukonin VG ancient and medieval Iran. Essays in the History of Culture. M., 1987.
Dyakonov M. Essay on the History of Ancient Iran. M., 1961.
Fry RN Heritage of Iran. M., 1972.
Article Author: Farruh Yusupov.
Date: 19.12.2012
Content
I. Introduction.
II. Origin of the ancient population of the city of Samarkand
II A. Languages of the aryans
III. Sogdian
III. A. Language
IV. Achaemenid empire
IV A. Ancient languages
IV. B. Language of the persians
IV. B. Writing
V. Empire of Alexander of Macedon
V. A. Language
VI. Sassanid empire
VI. A. Language
VI. B. Writing
VII. Turkic khanate. Western turkic khanate. Chinese
VII. A. Language
VIII. The Arab caliphate
VIII. B. Writing
IX. Smaragdos – emerald
X. Conclusion
XI. References
XI. Bibliographical material
I. Emerald ñity. Introduction.
In this research work will be considered the semantics and etymology of the city Samarkand. Samarkand was the link between Europe and Asia in the figurative and literal sense. A long time ago ancestors of the modern Samarkand`s townsmen lived in valley of the river Zarafshan. This seems like a rational decision of sogdians who lived over 3 000 years ago. Aqueducts (roman water supply system), the channels in the city did not exist at this time. As is well known to the river went the watering animals and in the river were a fish, which was more affordable food, than having a meat of wild animals. The value of the river was an important factor in the treatment and prevention of diseases. In ancient times, people even died from dysentery. These conditions are almost ideal for a settlement of people who could live more than 3000 years.
The earliest historical evidence indicating the existence of settlements of in the valley of the Zarafshan are given in the Avesta, the zoroastrian cult book. Scientists claim that the city "Marakand" originated in VIII century BC.
For linguistic research, there is a very important factor linking the tribe - a language and every language, in turn, divided nationality into ethnic - group. The most famous and ancient population of Samarkand were Sogdian who were members of the Iranian tribes through migration have settled in Central Asia (4). Civil wars forced the weaker tribes to leave a nomadic life and look for the best places to live. From the Pamir mountains in Tajikistan up to Bukhara, which is located in Uzbekistan, stretches Zarafshan river (in greek language Politimed), which became a haven for migrating tribes from the northwest (Chapter II) (4). In towns and villages of Bukhara and Samarkand still live many tajiks who speak in the local dialect of tajik language which mixed with uzbek and Russian language. In Tajikistan, there is still a Sughd province. In some cities, such as Zafaroobod people still speaks in yagnob language (dialect of sogdian language). In Samarkand, there a great part of the population consists of the iranians. Absolutely an important factor in determining the origin of the city's name is a style of naming city by they self. We mean the city`s name which called by the indigenous population. Some cities founded and renamed by conquerors (Jebus to Jerusalem), the other conquerors self-adapted natives names in their own way to get closer to local culture (Chach to Shash). For cause of making a great research we have to delve deep into the centuries. The main important tool in the study is a comparison and the linguistic; geographic; graphic; historical data analysis.
The essence of scientific inquiry is that in this paper compiles many famous scientific achievements that were made by dozens, even hundreds of years ago. But none of previous hypothesis has not gained the status of scientific theory, verified by scientific facts and scientific evidence. Íîâèçíà äàííîé ðàáîòû â òîì, ÷òî, äî ñèõ ïîð òàéíà íàçâàíèÿ ãîðîäà íå áûëà íè êåì íàó÷íî ðàñêðûòà. Êðîìå òîãî íå áûëî ñîáðàíî âîåäèíî íàó÷íûå äàííûå èç ñïåêòðà ñëåäóþùèõ ñìåæíûõ íàóê ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê ëèíãâèñòèêå: òåîëîãèÿ, èñòîðèÿ, ãåîãðàôèÿ, ãåîëîãèÿ, ýòíîãðàôèÿ, ëèíãâî - ñåìèîòèêà.
Samarkand is considered one of the oldest cities in the world. Nowadays age of the city is considered more than 2750 years. The scientific actuality of research in the disclosure of secret names of Samarkand interests many of scientists from around the world.
II. Origin of the ancient population of the city of Samarkand.
Aria (in the ancient indian language is arya-, in avestan language is airya-, in old persian language is ariya-) - the peoples of ancient Iran and ancient India (II-I millennium B.C.), who called themselves aryans, because of their habitat - Ariana. Their united by aryan language, which belongs to the Indo-European language family. Language and cultural differences defines that these tribes have from one ethos (nationality), which later broke up into small tribes. The scientists classify and name their descendants grand arian community (nationality of the forefathers of aryans), otherwise they called as indo - iranian peoples.
Scientists emphasize that protoarians (aryans before division into separate tribes) penetrated (4) from Andronovo culture (11) to the territory of Bactriano - Margian Archaeological Complex (12), where probably they conquered proto - aryan population which mixed with the aryans. Then some of these people start to move forward and conquer the south -east of India and south-west of India (Mitanni) (4).
Ancient monuments testify about the wholeness of the aryan nationality by avestan and vedic written sources. They indicate the ancient aryans were originally a single ethnic group.
The split between the indo - aryan and iranian branch starts in the second millennium BC (3).
Indo - Aryans - the nations also as iranians who speaks in indo - aryan languages. Areal of modern indo - aryan peoples mainly is Indian peninsula, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, the Middle East, Central Asia, Europe, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal and Maldives.
Basically, the structure of the iranian languages in which mainly are spoken in the south of the Central - asian region testifies that the linguistic admixture (linguistic units, words) of other languages in the iranian languages is almost absent. The other situation is in part of the Indian peninsula where they speak in indo - aryan languages. Also in the west of Iran, there are also traces of linguistic confusion. Iranian dialects have undergone adaptation as a result of their conquests, indo-aryans mixing with other tribes.
Modern scholars are not unreasonably believed that a common substrate, which lies at the basis of indo - aryan languages is the Bactriano - Margian archaeological complex. Bactriano - Margian civilization (12) is a civilization existed on the territory of Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan (mainly in the territory of ancient state Bactria) in the period 2200 -1700 years of B.C…. This culture was formed, apparently as a result of mixing of people of culture Namazga - tepe with crossed tribes (4), informant of the ancient aryan languages.
If we draw a parallel between the romance languages and indo - aryan, we can note an interesting detail. Despite of fact that latin language was basis of the english language but 30 percent of native english words (anglo- saxon, Pictish, german) are still in existence in the english language, and the rest is borrowed from Latin. In India, officials considered 22 different languages. That is basically a species of Indo-Aryan language with changes in the phonetic, lexical structure of language. And the Afghan languages, Pashto, Dari and Tajik retained almost completely its lexical, grammatical and stylistic language system. On the Aryan migrations (4) indicates that the inhabitants of this region is called the geographical area inhabited by the Aryans, who are still in use. For example, Sogd. Residents of the Indian peninsula, used in everyday geographical names that have come from the Avestan, the ancient Persian language.
The electronic encyclopedia Wikipedia clearly shows these examples: the word in Avestan language Aria Haroiuua, in Old Persian language Haraiva-«Ares" in the ancient Indian language Sarayu. Avestan word Haraxaiti, in Old Persian language sounds Harauvati-«Arachosia" on the ancient Indian language sounds Sarasvati.
II A. Languages of the Aryans.
The Aryan languages are currently divided into two branches. This nuristanskie languages (17) and Indo-Iranian languages, of which there are Iranian languages (6, 28). We are in the research focus on Indo-Iranian language branch.
Indo-iranian subbranch
Indo-aryan languages
Dardskie languages
The iranian Languages
Iranian languages (6) is divided into two types, too
Western languages: farsi, dari, tajik, kurdish, balochi, talysh
Oriental languages: pashto, the pamirs, ossetian
I ask you to note that the majority of the population living in the valley of the Zarafshan of Uzbekistan (Bukhara, Samarkand, in part Surkhandarya) said in broken Tajik. From this it follows that the indigenous people of Samarkand the Sogdian partially preserved their cultural value component - Indo-Aryan language. The Tajik language is derived from the Sogdian language. Sogdian language is derived from the Iranian language.
III. Sogdian.
Sogdians - is the Iranian nation inhabiting the territory of Sogdiana, located in the valley of the Zarafshan River, the area of modern Bukhara to Khujand.
The geographical position of Sogdiana have beneficial effects on cultural, economic exchange between peoples, civilizations east and west. In addition, the important trade routes (Silk Road) were in Sogdiana. Way of the caravan from the north was very difficult. In the Kazakh steppes of the climatic features, there were problems with the existence of oases, wells, and thereby sheds caravan (caravan parks on the way) cities. In the IV-VIII centuries Sogdians dominated trade between east and west, their trading colonies have been found far beyond Sogdiana - in particular, in what is now eastern China. Soviet orientalist wrote the following about the Sogdian Bartold VV: Sogdian trade in their cultural contribution to the region can be compared to "finikyanami Central Asia."
Due to its geographical position, the Sogdian language was used as a lingua franca - International (literally), the language spoken by the peoples of the Caspian Sea to Tibet. Linguistic traces of Sogdian felt in Turkic, Persian, in the form of loan words.
III. A. Language.
Avestan language (5) - a language in which you wrote the book Avesta. Avesta Zoroaster gathered followers after his death. Arshakidsky Valahsh king (probably Vologez I, I in. N. E.) Attempted to collect oral traditions of Zoroastrians. The date of writing 1200 - 600 BC. er .... The next of kin Avestan language (5) is the ancient Iranian language. Of - for a wide range distribution of Zoroastrianism in the Asian region Zoroastrian writings were written, and going for a long time. As a result, Avestan language (5) is also divided into two types: staroavestiysky language (Gat) (5.18) and mladoavestiysky language. Language Gat (5.18) is an archaic and semantically close Vedic language - the language of the Rigveda.
The first chapter of Avesta Videvdada (Fragard), some scholars of the west called "Geographic poem." This chapter contains a list of 16 areas inhabited by people (in the Avestan language asah - or otherwise soi?ra-), which are called on Avestan language Vahista (translated best). Mr. Noli suggests that these 16 countries correspond to those countries that recorded in the Avesta of the Buddhist Mahadzhanapad (?o?asa mahajanapada, VI century. BC), Jain and Sanskrit the national epic.
One of these countries - areas is Gava. Gava - Sogdian territory of residence (in the Avestan language Gaum yim su??o.saiian?m, translated as "permanent settlements, housing Sogdian"). That is in the Avestan language, "Havana" is referred to as "Sogdiana".
Before the mention of "Marokand" city also referred to as the settlement existed, but only in a different way. Sogdian and Avestan language supports their place of residence was called "Sughd". Once again it is worth noting, Sogdian and Avestan (5) are related languages and belong to the Indo-European family Indo-Iranian branch of Iranian group.
The father of history Herodotus is one of the Saka tribes (Turkic - speaking tribes) - neighbors Sogdian names as "saki - parasugudam" literally living for "Sogdiana" who lived in the Aral Sea basin in the lower reaches of the Syr Darya and Amu Darya. This is indirect evidence that demonstrates that the territory of modern Samarkand neighboring tribes, and also the Greeks called "Sugud" or "Sughd" according to the tribe. The most appropriate word for the translation of Sogdiana in alphabetic selection is a word in Farsi - "suht." This adjective is literally translated as burnt, hot. One of the most ancient cults practiced - Religions in Central Asia was Zoroastrianism. Their followers are called to another fire-worshipers. The fire was considered sacred in Zoroastrian elements. In this mythology was a symbol of fire vserazrushayuschy cleansing, the destruction of sin in man. I especially ask you to pay attention to the fact that the oldest mention of the tribal union - the city was found in the Avesta. Because many tribes can call your city (due to the original language may be), but most of all names derived from aboriginal self-indigenous population. In addition, special importance of the language in which was written "historical name registration" of the city. The main, state (using state power), the written language Sogdian was Avestan language. Thus, the ancient name of the town was "Sughd" - "the holy city (spiritually - purified) city."
IV. Achaemenid Empire
Persians - came from Indo-European Aryan nomadic tribes. In VII. ethnicity Persians (in Old Persian language parsa), has been named one of the major tribal groupings, who spoke Indo-Aryan language. As a result of the Aryan migration (4) of Central Asia and the Persian conquest of the Iranian plateau settle in the region of Anshan in Elam east of. Around the X century they conquered the city Pars (Persis - remained the territory of modern Fars) and begin to call themselves Persians.
Further, the mighty ruler Cyrus II in Asia creates (mainly due to the conquests of) the first, a powerful tribal alliance, which is named in honor of his dynasty - Achaemenid Empire. After his conquest of Sogdiana become one of the satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire.
IV A. Ancient Languages
Before parsing the language of the Achaemenid Empire, I propose to identify their origin and roots. After separation of the tribes (some tribes settled in Central Asia, while others continued their migration (4)) are separated as nuristanskie Languages (17) from the Indo-Iranian languages. Languages of the ancient Persians, who lived in what is now Iran, in turn, are divided into the following languages:
Mitanniyskoariysky ancient Indian (Vedic, Sanskrit)
Ancient Iranian (Avestan, the Persian)
As well we have identified and described above Avestan language (5) is akin to the Vedic language. Mitanni language is a close relative of the ancient Indian (language approach basically comes down to archaisms).
Most likely these two groups of extinct languages differed only in the phonetic system. Indeed, the proponents of these languages belong to one ethnic group and live in the same region. In general the roots of many words in this group are the same. A distinctive feature is supletivizatsiya words.
Written evidence of the existence of Mitanni Aryan language (XV-XIII centuries. BC. E.) Is a written source horse-breeding terminology hurritoyazychnogo state of Mitanni. Language of Mitanni was a lot of borrowed words in Akkadian language. What is the evidence of the close linguistic contact between these languages during the Achaemenid Empire.
The ancient Indian language is an early representative of the Indo-European languages, and is also considered akin to ancient Iranian languages (Avestan (5) and the Old Persian language), accounting for Indo-Iranian language nadvetv (15). The language is partly preserved in writing, and a literary language of the upper classes (13, 14).
This language is divided into the Vedic language (16) and Sanskrit. Vedic language in another language is called the Vedas. Most Vedic means of communication was the common people. Rigveda (1500-1300 gg. BC. E.) Was written in that language. Language of the Vedas was the spoken language of the population of Punjab. But with the spread of Zoroastrianism, intercommunication between communities, tribes, language of the Vedas became obsolete. The more extended the doctrine, especially in the language of the Vedas began to penetrate borrowing from other languages. Spoken forms were called Prakriti. This factor has forced the crack to the Prakrit language of the Vedas (Elementary) and Sanskrit (the literary language of the nobility) (13,14).
Prakrit, Prakriti (21,22) (prak?ti IAST translated as "the usual, simple") - Middle Indian languages and dialects used before the advent of Indian languages. Prakrit was the language of ordinary people (21). Known documents in Prakrit were the business records, recorded religious sermons, fiction (21).
Niyya - this northwestern prakritsky dialect. Most of the documents discovered in Eastern Turkestan recorded in writing "Kharosthi." Scientists suggest that Kharosthi - this script, which originated from the Aramaic alphabet. This script has been extended to the south of Central Asia, Northern India in the III century BC - IV century. Mr.. Oe.
At prakritskom language existed, the term "marakada" (semantics of the word - green), which in turn was borrowed from the Akkadian word "Barakah". But the Akkadian language was assimilated into Central Asia through the Persian conquest. Akin to Iranian ancient Indian language of language (15) used a Prakrit Aramaic alphabet (21) as well as the Sogdian language. Consequently, carriers of Sogdian and Prakrit infographics could read each other. True individual sounds and letters naturally evolved over time because of certain circumstances, but the consonant roots (the specifics of the Aramaic alphabet) the words were those. The name "Sogdiana" demonstrates that in Samarkand lived fierce adherents of Zoroastrianism. Another worth noting that Prakrit was developed and distributed by the Zoroastrians. Samarkand was the center of Zoroastrian culture. These facts are important links in the definition of a city "Marakad" in the empire of the Persians.
IV B. Language of the Persians.
The persian
Imperial aramaic
Elamite
Akkadian
The Persian language, then transformed into sredneiranskie languages (srednepersidsky, Parthian, Bactrian, Sogdian, Khwarizmian, hotanosaksky). Consequently, the Sogdian and Persians also found a common language, that is, they had almost a common language (akin to the ancient Iranian language), which confirms the borrowing of words from the ancient Indian language (15) in the Persian language and later in the Sogdian language.
In everyday life and in the Achaemenid Empire was large, as befits a few languages. Because of the constant wars to expand the territory of the empire of the Persians did not have time to study ancient Persian language of new tribes. At this time the empire, science and education had not gone through its rapid development. For our research, we should pay attention to the Imperial Aramaic.
Imperial Aramaic as the language used in the lingua - franca in the Middle East. But it is important that the Akkadian language was also one of the numbers used (official) language of the empire. Akkadian language is akin to the Hebrew language (vostochnosemitskoy language group). This indicates that borrowing the Hebrew word "Bereket" in Akkadian, "Barakah". Modified only syntagm (the words, combined grammar - semantics - the phonetic type) "a" to "e".
IV B. Writing.
On the territory of Sogdiana Sogdian used graphics. Sogdian letter - came out of Syrian literature, which in turn has occurred with the Aramaic script. But all these alphabets originated from the Phoenician graphics. The main point of my proposition is that almost all of the above text scripts recorded with left and right had almost similar graphemes. But the value to us becomes the following information: all these alphabets consist of consonants graphemes (letters). The truth of time in the Syrian alphabet, Sogdian alphabet appears a few vowels.
That is, as described above in the word "D` rkndh "(1) is written as a vowel only bow" and ". After all, from the Aramaic and graphics also borrowed "technology" with a record of adaptation. Due to the record type consonant consonant and small changes in the word "marakad" changed as "cm` rkndh "(1). But first things first. The second root of the "candidate" of the word in this word appears after the Sassanian influence. Before the Sassanid city was called "Marakad."
Importance for the historical analysis of the acquired division of the Syrian Christian church into two denominations: the Nestorians and Jacobites. During the split, each of these churches there is a type of font.
Vostochnosiriysky font ("Nestorian", "Chaldean" or "Assyrian") appeared at the beginning of ... VII. In Syriac font called madn?aya (madynhayya - literally translated "east").
Aramaic alphabet became widespread arbitrary due to the fact that the Iranian people have written in Aramaic, but also after the Iranian transliteration of the words in the Aramaic alphabet in Aramaic and Iranian press oneself words, getting kind geterogramm (the words are read by the Iranian pronunciation) (7) .
Of ancient Judea penetrate not only the alphabet, and Aramaic, but also religion and science. Traces of the Nestorians, in the form of text entries found in Central Asia. In some graves on the territory of Uzbekistan found evidence of Christian symbolism. By Nestorianism and other religions are not only treated with tolerance, but these beliefs openly popularized during the reign of the Sassanid (20,25,26,27).
But most importantly Nestorians brought not only Christianity in Central Asia, but the Holy Bible, from which the population of the Empire learned of the above remarks, "Bereket".
In the cornerstone alphabet (for many of the fundamental diagram) and the widespread Aramaic letter written only consonant characters (letters). A vowel sounds when reading interpreting every reader, the people in their own way. From the Hebrew word "Bereket" is borrowed in the Akkadian language. The Persians use to change the word phoneme "e - e 'for frequently used in the ancient Persian language sound" a ". Note, however only the phoneme (sound). Further, the Akkadian word "barraktu" goes into Sanskrit, and it sounds and is written as "maracatu." There are other forms of the words on the ancient Indian language, "marokat" "maracatu," "marakad", "maragdam." One of the ancient monuments of art shows gem "Marokat" in the "Legend of the Indian kingdom." Allow me to call this situation a phonetic adaptation. Until now, India has 22 official languages. These languages are mainly the dialects of the ancient Indian language, which are partly different sounds, morphological structure. On the Prakrit word will sound like "maragada" or "marakada." The final version of the following as "Marokand." Do not forget that in a multi Achaemenid Empire was only four official languages. In the final chapter we consider the meaning of the word, which brings together the following group of words. For a relatively - a comparative analysis, we will remove each box, which will later drop out due to circumstances, which we discuss below, "Bereket barraktu, Barkat, maracatu, maracatu, maragdam, maragada, marakada, smarkand, Marakanda" and, as a result of Samarkand .
V. Empire of Alexander of Macedon
Ancient Macedonia (Greek ?????????) - an ancient Greek state with its capital at Edessa.
The town was first mentioned under the name of Samarkand "Marakad" in the writings of Greek and Roman historians (2) - biographies of Alexander of Macedon, who conquered Samarkand, who by this time a well-developed and fortified city in 329 BC. er ....
Alexander of Macedonia to consolidate his power by actively pursues a policy of Hellenization (mixed culture of the natives with Greek culture). Alexander of Macedon frankly admits in a letter to his teacher, Aristotle, the parity of Greek science and culture with local culture. In Greek, even borrowed prakritskoe word "maragada," which goes into Greek as "smaragdos", in another embodiment, "maragdos" to the original Hebrew denotation of the word. Ending «??» - oo is a typical Greek words ending nouns. As the Greek language has acquired the status of scientific language (medicine, biology), culture (theater, architecture), so in antiquity the word "Smaragdos" passed as a borrowed word in many languages. For example, in the Russian language as the emerald.
V. A. Language.
The indo-european family
Ancient greek
VI. Sassanid Empire
Sassanid Empire (the Persian language s?s?nij?n) (20,25,26,27) - this Persian Empire, which was located on the territory of Iran, formed after the fall of the dynasty of the Parthian dynasty Arshakids (25).
There Sasanid empire from 224 to 651 per year (20,25,26,27). Scientists disagree about whether that was ruled Samarkand Sassanian empire? City in V. Mr.. Oe. was ruled Ephtalites. Ephtalites prevented the seizure of the territory of Sogdiana Sassanids. But in 560 State Ephtalites splits. However, the Turks captured the city of Samarkand only in 567 AD The reason for the collapse of the state of war with a Ephtalites sasanidkimi and the Turkic rulers. Perhaps in a further seven years from 560 to 567 year Samarkand was ruled by the Sassanids? Cause a short reign the Sassanid likely and there is a lack of detailed records of Samarkand. But in the annals of the language of Pahlavi town called "Smarkand."
VI A. Language.
Middlepersian
Aramaic
Srednepersidsky language (Pahlavi - translated as "the language of the Parthians"). The name "parsik" in Middle is translated as "Persian". Sredneiransky language belongs to the south-western language group.
VI B. Writing.
In the kingdom of the Sassanids used two recording systems that are based on the Aramaic of graphics:
Pahlavi
Manichean
In the second part of the word Samarkand - the root of "Candidate" is a stressed syllable. Korneslovo "settlement." Further there is a phonetic adaptation, which is used for convenience, storage and use of the words of a native language. At the end of the word "Kent" is stunning sound "t" sound in "d". A vowel "e" is changed to the consonant for Persian-speaking people grapheme "a". But why add the Turkic word "city" because prakritskoe word "Marakad" has no sound and the letter "n". The Sassanids called their country "Eronshahr." Literally translated, "City of the Iranians." The word "Shahr" translated into Turkic «sehir» - «city." In the old days were not taken based immigrant visas, but were frequent migration (4) of whole tribes, including the conquest and otvoevatelnye trips between neighboring communities. Scientists suggest that the conquest and unification (predominantly Turkic tribes, Sakas, Massagets) dahami due to start the Parthian era (25). Dahi (in Persian ????, in Latin, in Greek ????, Daoi or ????, Daai) - the name of the union of Turkic nomadic tribes who lived in Central Asia. Parthia was not only a neighbor but also the enemy of the Persians, but also the King of Parthia Mithradates I around 170 BCE -138/137. Oe. won the state Seleucid satrapy east - Persia (southeastern Iran). This was the city of the satrapy Istakhr that the administrative part of the modern shahrestan Marvdasht, Fars province, which is also located in Iran. But the main thing is that this city is native to the Sasana and his son Ardashir Papakana, founder of the kingdom of the Sassanids (25). At the time of Ardashir Papakana Istakhr childhood was ruled by the Turkic-Iranian tribes, which in turn owned by Parthia (25). Hence the name Persian and Turkic kingdom of the Sassanids - "Eronshahr." Due to the short rule of the Sassanids in "Marakad" city acquires in its composition Turkic root "Candidate." But because this second root of the city began to lose its basic meaning of the name. This was the neglect of the word "Marakad" long 25 centuries (2500 years). But should also pay attention to the letter "x" in Sogdian version of the word. As described above, traces of Sanskrit is clearly traced in the territory of Sogdiana. In the past, Samarkand was conquered by the rulers of the Kushan Empire. In the Kushan Empire spread widely Greco - Buddhism (23). On the coins of the Kushan rulers even portrayed Buddhist deity. Sanskrit grapheme "c" Sogdians voiced and recorded as "x" (in Russian) (19). Consequently transliteration Sogdian words "See` rkndh "(1) in Sanskrit might sound like" Smaraknsa. " Sogdians instead of the letter "s" on the last syllable used an "x". Do not forget also that, in Sogdian script was not originally there were vowels, but vowels were pronounced. Basically, the sound "and" Indo-Aryan languages dominated. Until today there is a proper name "Smaransa" in indoyazychnyh people.
VII. Turkic khanate. Western Turkic Khanate. China's Tang Dynasty.
Turkic Khanate, Khanate Tyurkyutsky (Kektyurk - Celestial Turks) - the state association in the territory of Central Asia. The founder of the family believe Hagan Ashina.
In the years 567-658, Samarkand, Sogdian being the center of possession, was according to the Turkic and Turkic khanate after the break (8,9,10) to become part of the West-Samarkand Khanate.
VII A. Language
The main language Khanate was an ancient Turkic.
Altaic family
Turkic sub branch
Oguz group
It should be noted that the Turkic form of the name Samarkand is markedly different from the others. The Turks did not adapt the name of the city as other nations of course - for the differences between language groups. If the previous tribes were largely Persian - speaking and their language differed only by a pronunciation, and writing some of the characteristics, the Turks had more language and cultural differences. The inscription on the "Kaaba of Zoroaster" (262 AD. E.) Persian King Shapur I called the Tashkent oasis as Chach, Shash later call it. But with the conquest of the Turkish city of Shash (modern Tashkent) is transformed into Binkent. In turn, the Turks completely transformed, but not translated like other nations, Pahlavi name "Smarkand" in "Simizkent." Again, here clearly, visible phonetic adaptation of sound "a" to "and." In 658-659 years the main land of West Kahanat were occupied by Chinese troops.
The city was briefly transferred to the jurisdiction of the Chinese Tang tribe. But in 704 West Turkic Khanate and at the same time, Samarkand is released from a Chinese dependency. Although the Chinese government was short in Samarkand, but still preserved in the Chinese information about Samarkand. The Chinese have adapted the Turkish name of Samarkand Semizkent - "a rich settlement," in "C - E - ce - ch," translating the name of the city in that same vein as "fat, rich city."
Chinese tribes belong to the Turkic - Mongolian family. Old Turkic word "kent - the city" have transformed the Chinese in the "ch". In modern Chinese still used in the value of the Turkic word "kent - Quanshi ??».
VIII. The Arab Caliphate
The Arab Caliphate (Arabic ????? ???????) - Empire of Arab tribes (the Semitic tribes), which arose and was finally formed in the large gains in the VII-IX centuries. and led by caliphs.
In 712 the city of Samarkand was conquered by Arab invaders led by Kuteyba ibn Muslim.
VIII A. The origin of writing.
Canaanite letter
Phoenician
Aramaic
The syrian
The arab
The Arabs after the conquest of the city borrow the name of the local population - Sogdian. As described above, namely the Late Sogdian alphabet already existed not only consonant type of record, but also recorded and vowel graphemes (laryngeal bow). This period coincides with the development of Arabic script. Obvious signs of mixing linguistic, cultural, commercial, scientific achievements of many Middle Eastern nations, before the Arab Caliphate.
Progenitor of the Arabic alphabet as many Middle Eastern alphabets is the Phoenician alphabet. As well as all related alphabets that have occurred in the Hebrew alphabet, Arabic alphabet consonant inherited record type. As later alphabets, the Arabic alphabet developed record vowel. No letters, but letters, vowel letter "alef" is the initial vowel the Arabic alphabet. This letter is borrowed from the Hebrew alphabet graphemes "aleph." Glottal stop, glottal stop - it's a dull guttural consonant, is obtained by closing the vocal cords, then cords under air pressure quickly opened. This grapheme became independent phonetic letter having its one value and recorded separately from the rest of the letters.
Sogdian self "Sm` rkndh "(1) was probably changed into Arabic as Samarkand. Vowels remained, as it should be ignored, but the glottal stop has acquired great importance from the Arabs. That is, the value of acquired laryngeal Smyk vowel letter "alef", which sounds a long "a". A Pahlavi addition of "Candidate" also borrows from Sogdian prisustviem strong semantic link (values) of the word "city". But lost its original denotation prakritsky. As a result, a Sogdian word 'see' rkndh "(1) the city was transformed into an Arabic word" Samarkand ". Perhaps the Arabs attempted adaptation trasnkodirovaniya (total change in the words of an Arabic word that is similar to alphabetic, semantic service). "Samar" translated into Arabic as "useful", "necessary" and if we add "Candidate", then get "Samarkand - Excellent city." But in any case, this hypothesis has never Research (written source of the time) basis. You can iterate through a lot of options, but the Turkish translation of the name of the city has since been adopted as official. The Armenian historian of the XIII century Sumbat, writes that "Smarand" means "fat or fat city." Spanish ambassador, passed in Samarkand, Tamerlane, Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, informs us that the name of the capital of the empire of Amir Temur Samarkand, came from the Turkish language - "Simeskint," which means "village rich".
IX. Smaragdos – Emerald.
Finally we got to the most important chapter in which we try to solve the mystery, which we kept throughout the research, namely the primordial meaning of Samarkand "Marokand."
In the sacred christian science (in which we see, read a little below the head), the historical chronicle of the Bible have any information about gemstone ???? («Bareket", "Barkat"). Also biblical name Varak transformed in arabic language in Barack. The hebrew word “Barakat” borrowed and translated in arabic language as “blessed”. Most likely the word “Barakat” passed into arabic from the hebrew language. But also the semantics of the Arabic word "bark" (translated lightning) is almost identical to the Hebrew meaning "shining". And translated into Hebrew, these words simply - "Emerald". It is noteworthy that in the modern Arabic and Persian language to refer to the word "emerald" uses the word remotely resembling the word Samarkand Turkic words «Zumurrud, Zumrud, Zumrut». In the affinity of these words we will make later. Some scientists do not unreasonably assume that the ancient Turkic runic script (Orkhon - yenisey script) occurred from Sogdian cursive letters by changes in graphemes (letters). In the initial version of the Sogdian alphabet perception of vowels, was dependent on the reader. Consonant type allow the reader to interpret the vowels in their own way. If the Persians had the letter "e" in "Bereket" changed to "a" as in the word "Maracatu", the Turks with the letter "u" as in the word "Zumurut." The phrase "with", as in the word "Smarkand" becomes voiced in the letter "z", and the syntagm "a" as in the word "Izmaragd" to "y" in the end we get the word "Zumurud."
The earliest mention of the findings found in the emerald valley Pansher in Afghanistan (ancient Bactria).
Obviously, the Persians Sogdian fort was named an emerald from the fact that the territory of ancient Bactria and the valley of the Zarafshan River mined emeralds.
In 1. BC Pliny the Elder wrote: "Smaragd has twelve genera, - Pliny the Elder wrote. - Nobles are Scythian, named for the fact people in whose are. Immediate praise and have a place to stay! Bactrian ... but they write that they are much smaller than the Scythian ... "
X. Conclusion.
In summary we can write the entire list of famous names of Samarkand.
The name of the town is named Approximate date title Language Written language group value
words
Sughd 702 BC. Oe. Sogdian Sogdian Aramaic Iranian holy city
Marakad IV BC. Oe. Persian imperial Aramaic alphabet - Prakrit Aramaic letter Iranian Emerald City
Smarkand IV century BC. Oe. Sassanids srednepersidsky Pahlavi,
Manichean
Iran -
Smaransa III in BC. Oe. Kushans Sanskrit Greek Ancient Aramaic based on -
See `rkndh IV century BC. Oe. Sogdian Sogdian Sogdian Aramaic based on the Iranian -
Simizkent 576 n year. Oe. Turks ancient Turkic Orkhon-Yenisey Ancient Runes rich city
Si mi ce ch VI century AD. Oe. Chinese Chinese Chinese writing Sino - Tibetan family rich city
Samarkand 712 n. Oe. Arab Arabic Arabian alphabet tsentralnosemitskaya -
Emerald City (English - Emerald city) - the city, a fictional Leimen Frank Baum. Soviet readers to the public the story of the "Emerald City" was presented by the writer Alexander Volkov in a series of similar works of this city located in the country "Oz." LF Baum suggested that the fictional town of them is a far continent surrounded by desert. But who knows, LF Baum told the writer of the 19th century folk legends about the history of the existing to this day in Uzbekistan?
In the end we can only thank the entire scientific world, who published best opening of Samarkand in the electronic encyclopedia Wikipedia.org; historical and tourist resources of the Internet, online translator Google; scientific blogs. Most gratifying that the name of the city of Samarkand greeks called emerald gem - "Smaragdos" and “Maragdos”. Thanks to the Greek culture, Samarkand has acquired the status of common nouns. Samarkand began its global journey in a borrowed word from the Hebrew word «??????». Then, the semitic word «baraq - ??????» migrate into the Achaemenid Empire. It is important that the Greek word "emerald" borrows prakritsk word "marakad" - the first name of Samarkand. Through Greek and Turkic language word Samarkand lives in almost every language in the world not only as a city, but also as an emerald. In Latin it «smaragdus»; the spoken Latin language is «esmaralda, esmaraldus»; in Italian language is «smeraldo»; Spanish is «esmeralda»; French is «emeraude»; in Middle English is «Emeraude» , in the Georgian language is «???????? - zurmukhti»; in the Armenian language is «zmruxt» (24).
This evidence suggests that Samarkand is part of a global human heritage.
XI. Reference.
1. Lurie PB Historical and linguistic analysis of the Sogdian place names. Diss. on soisk. uch. of Art. Candidate. phyla. of Sciences. St Petersburg. 2004 .- Pp. 39, 110
2. Quintus Curtius Rufus, Arrian.
3. Mallory, J.P. (1989), In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth, London: Thames & Hudson
4. A. Christensen. Le premier chapitre du Vendidad et l'histoire primitive des tribus iraniennes, Copenhagen, 1943, pp. 78ff.
5. K. Hoffmann. Avestian language.
6. Lassen, Christian. 1936. Die Altpersischen Keilschrift von Persepolis. Entzifferung des Alphabets und Erklarung des Inhalts. Bonn: Weber. S. 182.
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10. Methodological recommendations for the preparation of students to UNT in the history of Kazakhstan / OS Lokotinova Grebenyuk Yu P - Almaty: "Institute training and retraining of the education system", 2007. - S. 14-15. - 70 seconds.
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12. Sarianidi, V. I. (1994). «Preface», in Hiebert, F. T.: Origins of the Bronze Age Oasis Civilization of Central Asia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-87365-545-1
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14. See Beshem AL Miracle, which was India, trans. from English. Moscow, 1977
15. Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1990. - The article "Indo-European languages."
16. T. J. Elizarenkova. Vedic language. M., 1987. - Pp. 9.
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25. Cambridge history of Iran. Vol. 3 (1). The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods / Ed. By E. Yarshater. Cambridge; L.; N.-Y.; New Rochelle; Melbourne; Sydney, 1983. Translated from English.
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27. Paterson W.F. The Sassanids. Translated from English.
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XI. Bibliographical material
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