APPENDIX III
THE INDIAN ELEMENTS IN THE PERSIAN PHARMA-
COLOGY OP ABU MANSUR MUWAFFAQ
On the preceding pages reference has repeatedly been made to the
work of Abu Mansur as proving that the Persians were acquainted
with certain plants and products, or as demonstrating the inter-
relations of Persia and India, or of Persia and China. Abu Mansur's
"Principles of Pharmacology" is a book of fundamental importance,
in that it is the first to reveal what Persian- Arabic medicine and pharma-
cology owe to India, and how Indian drugs were further conveyed to
Europe. The author himself informs us that he had been travelling
in India, where he became acquainted with her medical literature. It
therefore seems to me a useful task to collect here what is found of
Indian elements in his work, and thus present a complete summary of
the influence exerted by India on the Persia of the tenth century. It is
not my object to trace merely Indian loan-words in Persian, although
several not hitherto recognized (as, for instance, balddur, turunj, dand,
pUpal, etc.) have been identified by me; but I wish to draw up a list of
all Indian drugs or products occurring in Abu Mansur, regardless of
their designations, and to identify them with their Indian equivalents.
Abu Mansur gives the names in Arabic; the Persian names are supplied
from Achundow's commentary or other sources. The numbers in
parentheses refer to those in Achundow's translation.
J. Jolly has added to the publication of Achundow a few observations
on Indian words occurring in the work of Abu Mansur; but the real
Indian plants and drugs are not noticed by him at all, while his alleged
identifications are mere guesswork. Thus he proposes for armdk or
armal Skr. amlaka, amlikd, and dmra, three entirely different plants,
none of which corresponds to the description of armak, which is a bark
very similar to kurfa (Winterania canella), the best being brought from
Yemen; it is accordingly an Arabic, not an Indian plant. Harbuwand
(No. 576) is described as a grain smaller than pepper, somewhat yellow-
ish, and smelling like Aloeocylon agallochum; according to Jolly, this
should be derived from Skr. kharva-mndhyd ("small cardamom"),
but the question is not of cardamoms, and there is no phonetic coin-
cidence of the words. The text says that kader (No. 500) is a wholesome
remedy to soften the pustules of small-pox. Jolly proposes no less
580
INDIAN ELEMENTS IN PERSIAN PHARMACOLOGY 581
than four Sanskrit plant-names, kadara, kadala, kandara, and kandata,
while the Tohfat states that kader is called kawi in India, being a tree
similar to the date-palm, the flower being known as kaburah (p. 197);
kader, accordingly, is an Arabic word, while kawi is the supposed Indian
equivalent and may correspond to Sanskrit kapi (Emblica officinalis,
Pongamia glabra, or Olibanum). These examples suffice: the twenty-one
identifications proposed by Jolly are not convincing. Many of these
have also been rejected by Achundow.
The Indian loan-words in Persian should occasionally be made the
subject of an exhaustive study. A few of these are enumerated by
P. HoRN. 1 Kurkum ("saffron"), however, is not of Indian origin, as
stated by him (cf. above, p. 321). Skr. surd, mentioned above, occurs in
Persian as sur ("rice-wine"). Middle Persian kapik, Persian kabl
("monkey"), is derived from Skr. kapi?
1(1). aruz, P. birinj, rice (Oryza sativa). Cf. above, p. 373.
2(5). utruj, P. turunj, citron (Citrus medico). From Skr. mdtulunga
(above, p. 301), also mdtulanga, -Idnga, and -linga.
3(11). ihlilaj, P. halila, myrobalan (Terminalia chebula). Skr. harUakl
(above, p. 378).
4(76). balilaj, P. balila, Terminalia belerica, Skr. vibhitaka (cf. T'oung
Pao, 1915, p. 275).
5(12). amlaj, P. amlla (amela, amula), Emblica officinalis or Phyl-
lanthus emblica. Skr. amala (also dhdtri), provided the botanical identi-
fication is correct; phonetically, P. dmila would rather point to Skr.
dmla or amlikd (Tamarindus indica), Chinese transcription ^ 5? $1
an-mi-lo, *am-mi-la. Abu Mansur states that "there is a variety
sir-amlaj; some physicians erroneously read this name slr-amlaj, be-
lieving that it was administered in milk (sir) ; but this is a gross error,
for it is sir, and this is an Indian word, and amlaj signifies 'without
stone/ I was there where amlaj grows, and have seen it with my own
eyes." The etymology given is fantastic, but may have been com-
municated to the author in India.
6(33). atmat, Nelumbium speciosum or Nelumbo nucifera (p. 205).
"It is a kernel like an Indian hazel-nut. Its effect is like that of Orchis
morio. It is the seed of Nymph&a alba indica, and is as round as the
Indian hazel-nut." Both the botanical identification and the trans-
lation appear to me somewhat questionable. Cf. No. 47.
7(36). dzddraxt, dzddiraxt, Melia azadiracta. Abu Mansur adds
as the Arabic name of the plant. Ibn al-Baitar (LECLERC, Vol. I,
1 Grundr. iran. Philol., Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 7.
2 HUBSCHMANN, Pers. Studien, p. 87.
582 SlNO-lRANICA
p. 54) explains the Persian word as "free tree," and Leclerc accordingly
derives it from azdd-diraxt. Skr. nimba, nimbaka, mahdnimba.
8(40). usndn, Herba alkali, chiefly species of Salsola. "There are
four kinds of alkali herb, a white, yellow, green, and an Indian kind
which occurs as Indian hazel-nut (funduq-i hindl), also called xurs-i
sml ('Chinese xurs') and rutta." Cf. T'oung Pao, 1916, p. 93;
above, p. 551.
9(54). bitlx ul-hindl, P. hindewdne, water-melon (above, p. 443).
10(73). belddur, balddur, the marking-nut tree (Semecarpus anacar-
dium). Cf. above, p. 482.
11(77). birinj-i kdbill, ''rice of Kabul" (Embelia ribes). Skr. vidanga
(cf. T'oung Pao, 1915, pp. 282-288; 1916, p. 69).
12(78). bang, henbane (Hyoscyamus) , a narcotic prepared from
hemp-seeds. The seed was used as a substitute for opium (Abu Mansur,
No. 59). Skr. bhangd, hemp (Cannabis saliva). The Persian word is
also traced to Avestan banha, "a narcotic," but it seems to me preferable
to assume direct derivation from Skr. in historical times. Arabic banj,
Portuguese bango, French bangue. P. Sabibi, "a narcotic root; also the
inebriating hemp-seed."
13(85). bUs, halahil, aconite (Aconitum). Hindi bis, Skr. vi$a (Aconi-
tum ferox), from visa, "poison;" Skr. hdldhala, a species of aconite and
a strong poison prepared from it. Cf. T'oung Pao, 1915, pp. 319-320,
note.
14(87). tut, mulberry (Morus alba), a native of China. The opinion
of NOLDEKE (Pers. Studien, II, p. 43), that the Persian word is traceable
to Semitic, is entirely erroneous, as this species spread from the far
east and India to Iran and Europe, and began to be cultivated in the
Mediterranean area only from the twelfth century. Skr. tuda and tula,
Bengali and Hindustani tul, tut, Morus alba or indica (ROXBURGH, Flora
Indica, p. 658); cf. SCHRADER in Hehn, Kulturpflanzen, p. 393. Morus
nigra, the black mulberry, is a native of Persia.
15(90). tamr ul-hindl, P. tamar-i hindl, tamarind (Tamarindus
indica), cultivated throughout India and Burma. Skr. tintida, tintidlka,
tintilikd, etc., jhdbuka, amllkd.
16(94). tanbul, P. pan, barge-tanbol, betel (Piper betle). Skr. tdmbula,
ndgavallikd.
17(111). juz-i buwwd, P. juz-i buy a, nutmeg (Myristica moschata,
officinalis, or fragrans) . Skr. jdti, jdtikoqa, jdtisdra, jdtiphala.
18(112). juz-i mdtil, P. tdtura, datura, Datura metel. Skr. mdtula,
dhatura. Cf. T'oung Pao, 1917, p. 23.
19(142). habb ul-qilqil (qulqul), seeds of Cassia tor a (the foetid cassia).
Skr. prapundda, prapundta, prapumndla, tubariqimba; Singhalese peti-
INDIAN ELEMENTS IN PERSIAN PHARMACOLOGY 583
tora (also cultivated in Indo-China, China, and Japan: PERROT and
HURRIER, p. 146; STUART, p. 96; Japanese ebisu-gusa) .
20(248). duhn ul-amlaj, oil of myrobalan (oleum emblicae). Cf.
No. 5.
21(251). duhn ul-sunbul, Indian nard-oil (oleum Valerianae jata-
mansi). Cf. No. 32.
22(253). ddr-sml, P. dar-fini, cinnamon (Laurus cinnamomum, Cin-
namomum tamala) . Arabic also saddj. Skr. tvaca.
23(254). ddr-filfil, P. pipal, pilpil, long pepper (Piper longum).
Skr. pippati.
24(260). dandy dend, dund, Croton tiglium. From Skr. dantl, Croton
polyandrus (also called Baliospermum montanum). Abu Mansur adds
that this plant is called in Indian ceipal. This is Skr. jayapdla, Croton
jamalgota (the latter from Hindustani jamalgota), styled also sdraka.
Arabic also dend smi (Low, Aram. Pflanzennamen, p. 170). Cf. above,
p. 448. In Tibetan we have dan-da and dan-rog.
25(261). P. divddr, devddr, Pinus or Cedrus devdara, deodar a, or
deodora. Skr. devaddru ("tree of the gods")- I n Persian also sanobar-i
Hindi, nastar; Arabic Sajratud-devddr , sanobarul-hind.
26(272). zarira, sweet flag (Acorus calamus). Achundow (p. 192)
identifies Arabic zarira with an alleged Indian word dksarirah, indicated
by Berendes; I cannot trace such an Indian word. Zarira appears to
be identical with Arabic dirira (GARCIA) or darira ("aroma"); cf. also
Low, I.e., p. 342. Skr. vacd, conveyed to Persian and Arabic as vdj
(GARCIA: Guzerat vaz, Deccan bache, Malabar vazabu, Concan vaicam,
employed by Abu Mansur in No. 564, where Achundow identifies it
with Iris pseudacorus, and on p. 272 also with Acorus calamus'), ugra-
gandha, and sadgranthd.
27(281). ratta, P. bunduq-i hindl ("Indian hazel-nut"), Sapindus
mukorossi and trifoliatus (not in Watt); Achundow's identification is
apparently erroneous. The question evidently is of Guilandina bonduc
(cf. LECLERC, Vol. I, p. 276), also called C&salpinia bonducella, the
fever-nut or physic-nut, Skr. kuberdksl ("eye of Kubera"), latdkaranja;
P. xdyahe-i iblls; Arabic akitmakit, kitmakit.
28(288). Sangatil (Middle Persian sangamr), Arabic-Persian zanjabil,
ginger (Zingiber officinale) . Three kinds Chinese, Zanzibar, and
Melinawi or zurunbdj are distinguished. The word is based on an
Indian vernacular form *s(s)angavira, corresponding to Pali singivera,
Skr. qrngavera; drdraka (the fresh root).
29(292). zurunbdd, P. zarambad, Curcuma zedoaria. Cf. YULE,
Hobson-Jobson, p. 979.
30(304). zarwdr, Curcuma aromatica or zedoaria. "This is an Indian
584 SlNO-lRANICA
remedy." Achtmdow (p. 193) suspects a clerical error for zadwdr
(also jadwdr). Skr. nirvisa, vanaharidrd. Cf. above, p. 544.
31(311). sukkar, P. Sakar, Sakkar, sugar-cane, sugar (Saccharum
officinarum). Prakrit and Pali sakkhard, Skr. qarkard.
32(315). sunbul, P. sunbul-i hindi, Valeriana jatamansi. Skr.
jatdmdmsl.
33(316). satixa, Laurus cassia. Skr. tvaca Cf. No. 22.
34(324). saqmuniyd, Convolvulus scammonia. "There are three
kinds, an Indian, that from Carmgan, and that from Antiochia; the
latter being the best, the Indian ranking next. The Indian kind is the
gum of Convolvulus (or Ipomcea) turpethum" The latter is Skr. tripufa,
or trivft; hence Hindustani tarbud, P. turbid, Arabic turbund. C. scam-
monia is a native of Syria, Asia Minor, and Greece, and is cultivated in
some parts of India.
35(333). sdtil. "It is an Indian remedy which resembles a Tuber
terrae (fungus), and purges the corrupted humours." It is also called
Sdtil and in Persian rolanak.
36(361). M (M), "Indian quince (Cydonia indica)" In the com-
mentary (p. 245), Achundow cites also a Persian bih-i hindi ("Indian
quince"), and adds that Schlimmer mentions merely a Cydonia vulgaris.
What this Cydonia indica is supposed to be is a mystery: neither Rox-
burgh nor Watt knows such an Indian species. A. de Candolle already
knew that there is no Sanskrit name for the quince. The Persian quince
is mentioned by Abu Mansur (No. 309) as safarjal (P. bih or beh, and obi).
37(368). sandal (Arabic), andan, Zandal (Persian), sandal-wood
(Lignum santalinum). Red (from Pterocarpus santalinus) and white
(from Santalum album) are distinguished. Skr. candana.
38(386). tdllsfar, alleged to be Myristica moschata; on p. 247, how-
ever, Achundow withdraws this interpretation. According to Daud, it
is the bark of the mulberry coming from the Dekkan. The word, at all
events, appears to be Indian: cf. Skr. tdUqapattra, "leaf of Flacourtia
cataphracta."
$9(422). julful, sAsofilfil, black pepper (Piper nigrum). Skr. pippali,
marica.
40(434). fufal, P. pupal, areca-nut palm (Areca catechu). Skr.
pugaphala; Singhalese puvak.
41(450). qust, P. kustj Costus amarus or speciosus (cf. also p. 254).
Skr. kutfha, idem and Saussurea lappa.
42(456). qdqula, P. hll-i buzurg, grains of paradise seeds, greater seeds
of cardamom (Amomum granum paradisi, or melegueta).
43(457). qaranful, P. mexak, cloves (Caryophyllus aromaticus). Skr.
lavanga.
INDIAN ELEMENTS IN PERSIAN PHARMACOLOGY 585
44(459). quldni, a kind of barley brought from India. JOLLY (p. 196) ,
without giving an Indian name, regards this as Glycine labialis (ROX-
BURGH, Flora Indica, p. 565) ; Watt does not give this species for India.
Cf. No. 572, where it is described under the name hdl.
45(480). kundur, incense (Boswellia thuriferd). Skr. kunduru,
kundura, kundu, kunduruka. Achundow does not mention a Persian
form kunduru, as asserted by HUBSCHMANN (Armen. Gram., p. 172).
Pahlavi *kunduruk and Armenian kndruk are directly traceable to Skr.
kunduruka.
46(483). kafur (Arabic and Persian), camphor (Laurus camphor a).
The same word appears already in Middle Persian. Skr. karpura.
47(512). Idk, rangldk, lac (Gummi laccae). Cf. above, p. 476.
48(517). md$, mungo bean (Phaseolus mungo). Skr. md$a (Phaseolus
radiatus). This Indian word is widely diffused over Asia: Tibetan
ma-$a, Mongol ma$a, Turk! ma's ("a small kind of bean")j Taran&
mas ("bean"), Sart mat ("lentil"), Osmanli maS.
49(525). musktirdmu&r , musktirdmsl, Origanum dictamnus. "The
best is that of India." The name is said to come from the Syriac (p. 267),
AINSLEE (Materia Indica, Vol. I, p. 112) calls it dittany of Crete, and
says that he has never seen it in India. Indeed it does not occur there,
hence the Indian variety of Abu Mansur must be 0. marjorana, the
sweet marjoran, Skr. phanijjhaka, Arabic mardakus or mizunjus.
50(550). nargll (Arabic ndrjil), coco-nut (Cocos nucifera). Avicenna:
juz hindl ("Indian nut"). Skr. ndrikela, ndrikera, etc.
51(552). nllufar, P. nilupar, Nymph&a alba, N. lotus, etc. Skr.
mlotpala (Nymph&a lotus)', also kumuda, kamala, etc. Cf. LOEW, I.e.,
P- 3i3.
52(557). ml, Ilia, indigo (Indigofera tinctoria). Skr. nlla (above,
P- 37o).
53(572). hdl, P. hll-i xurde, lesser cardamom (Cardamomum minus or
malabaricum, or Elettaria cardamomum). Skr. eld.
54(583). yabruh, mandrake (Atropa mandragora). "Two kinds are
distinguished, an Indian, called yabruh ul-sanam, and a Nabathsean."
As the genus Atropa does not occur in India, with the exception of
A. belladonna, which, however, is restricted to the territory stretching
from Simla to Kashmir, it is obvious that a species of Datura is to be
understood by the Indian mandrake of Abu Mansur. This case is
interesting, in that it shows again the identical employment of the
mandrake and the datura (cf. LAUFER, La Mandragore, T'oung Pao,
1917, pp. 1-30).
APPENDIX IV
THE BASIL
I propose to treat here briefly of the history of a genus of plants
which has not yet been discussed by historians, Ocimum, an extensive
genus of the order Labiatae. I do not share the common opinion of
most commentators of Theophrastus and Pliny, that their &KWOV or
ocimum is identical with the Ocimum basilicum of Linne*. Theophrastus
touches on okimon in several passages; but what he describes is a shrub,
not an herb, nor does he emphasize any of the characteristic properties
of Ocimum basilicum. FEE justly comments on Pliny (xx, 48) that
this species is not understood by him, it being originally from India
(or rather, as will be seen, from Iran), and never found in a wild state.
From what Varro says, he infers that Pliny's ocimum must be sought
among the leguminous plants, the genus Hedysarum, Lathyrus, or
Medicago. 1 Positive evidence of this conclusion comes from Ibn al-
Baitar, whose vast compilation is principally based on the work of
Dioscorides, with the addition of annotations of Arabic authors. Ibn
al-Baitar, in his discussion of the plant which we call Ocimum, does
not fall back on the okimon of Dioscorides (n, 171), and, in fact, does
not cite him at all. 2 He merely reproduces the data of Arabic writers:
this is decisive, and leads us to reject any connection between the
ocimum of the ancients and the species coming from the Orient and
known to our science of botany as Ocimum. 3
There is good reason to assume that at least one species, if not
several, is a native of Persia, and was diffused from there to India
and China, probably also to the West. This is Ocimum basilicum, the
sweet or common basil. The name paaCKiKov ("royal") as the designa-
tion of an Ocimum first occurs in Byzantine literature, in Aetius (sixth
century) and Symeon Seth; and, since the king of Persia was known to
the Greeks simply as "the king" (/Sao-tXcus), it is more than probable
that the Greek term is reproduced after the model of Persian Sdh-
siparam (spram) or $ah-i sfaram, which means as much as "fragrant
1 Cf . BOSTOCK and RILEY, Natural History of Pliny, Vol. IV, p. 249.
2 Cf. LECLERC, Traits des simples, Vol. II, p. 186; Vol. Ill, p. 191.
8 Leclerc upholds the opposite opinion, although Sprengel, Fe"e, and Littr6 argue
in the same manner as here proposed.
586
THE BASIL 587
leaf of the king," and denotes the basil. 1 The plant is esteemed for its
leaves, which serve for culinary purposes to season soups or other dishes,
and which have a flavor somewhat like cloves. The juice of the leaves
is employed medicinally.
Indeed, as shown by our word "basil," it was under this Middle-
Greek name, which did not exist in the period of classical antiquity,
that the plant became known to the herbalists of Europe. Thus the
celebrated JOHN GERARDE 2 says, "The latter Grecians have called it
basilikon: in shops likewise Basilicum, and Regium: in Spanish Alba-
haca: B in French Basilic: in English Basill, Garden Basill, the greater
Basill royall, the lesser Basill gentle, and Bush Basill." D. REMBERT
DoDOENS 4 speaks of the basill royall or great basill, and says, "In this
countrey the Herboristes do plante it in their gardens." There is much
in favor of Sickenberger's supposition that the introduction of the basil
into Europe may be due to the returning crusaders, 5 while the Arabic
name adopted in Spain and Portugal suggests a Moorish transplantation
into western Europe.
Two varieties are common throughout Persia and Russian Turkistan,
one with green and another with dark-red leaves. 6 According to
Avicenna, it grows in the mountains of Ispahan. 7 Abu Mansur sets
forth its medicinal properties. 8 It is further cultivated throughout
India, Malaya, and China. 9
W. ROXBURGH 10 states that Ocimum basilicum is a native of Persia,
and was thence sent to the Botanic Garden at Calcutta under the
Persian names deban-$dh and deban-macwassi. According to W.
, Z. f. K. Morg., Vol. VII, 1850, p. 145. Osmanli fesligen or fesliyen is
likewise based on the Greek word. According to the Century Dictionary, the word
basil is of unknown origin. The Oxford Dictionary cites from Prior, "perhaps
because the herb was used in some royal unguent, bath, or medicine," a baseless
speculation, as in fact it was never used in this way.
2 The Herball or Generall Historic of Plantes, p. 547 (London, 1597).
3 Also alfabega, alhabega, alabega, Portuguese alf abaca (French fabregue) , from
Arabic al-habak (rixani) ; the latter occurs in LECLERC, Trait6 des simples, Vol. I,
p. 404.
4 Niewe Herball, translation of HENRY LYTE, p. 239 (London, 1578).
5 Cited in ACHUNDOW, Abu Mansur, p. 211.
6 KORZINSKI, Ocerki rastitelnosti Turkestana, p. 51. SCHLIMMER mentions the
two species Ocimum album and basilicum as occurring in Persia.
7 LECLERC, Traite" des simples, Vol. Ill, p. 191.
8 ACHUNDOW, Abu Mansur, pp. 66, 90, 103.
9 FORBES and HEMSLEY, Journ. Linn. Soc., Vol. XXVI, p. 266; KING and
GAMBLE, Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula, p. 702 (Perak, Penang,
Malacca, perhaps only cultivated).
10 Flora Indica, p. 464.
588 SlNO-lRANICA
AiNSLiE, 1 the plant was brought to India from Persia, where it is
common, by Sir John Malcolm. This is quite possible; but the fact
cannot be doubted that the basil was known in India at a much earlier
date, for we have a variety of Sanskrit names for it. Also G. WATT*
holds that the herb is indigenous in Persia and Sind. It is now culti-
vated throughout tropical India from the Panjab to Burma.
The Chinese name of Ocimum basilicum is lo-lo $146 (*la-lak).
It is first described in the Ts'i min yao lu of the sixth century, where it
is said that Si Lo (273-333) tabooed the name (on account of the
identity of the second character with that in his own name, cf . above,
p. 298) and changed it into Ian hian SB ; but T'ao Hun-kin (451-536)
mentions it again as lo-lo, and gives as popular designation Si-wah-mu
ts*ai S3:-W? ("vegetable of the goddess Si-wan-mu"). The Ts'i
min yao $u cites an older work Wei hunfu su ^ 1 BR /$, ("Preface to
the Poems of Wei Hun") to the effect that the plant lo-lo grows on the
hills of the K'un-lun and comes from the primitive culture of the
Western Barbarians ( tt! It i H f>) . This appears to be an allusion to
foreign origin; nevertheless an introduction from abroad is not hinted
at in any of the subsequent herbals. Of these, the Pen ts'ao of theKia-yu
period (1056-64) is the first which speaks of the basil as introduced
into the materia medica. The name lo-lo has no meaning in Chinese,
and at first sight conveys the impression of a foreign word. Each of the
two elements is most frequent in transcriptions from the Sanskrit. In
fact, one of the Sanskrit names of the basil is kardlaka (or kardla), and
Chinese *la-lak (*ra-lak) corresponds exactly; the first syllable ka- is
sometimes dropped in the Indian vernaculars. 3 If this coincidence is
fortuitous, the accident is extraordinary; but it is hardly possible to
believe in an accident of this kind.
There is, further, a plant & ffll it ^Jfou-lan-lo-lo, *fu (bu)-lan-la-lak,
solely mentioned by C'en Ts'an-k'i of the eighth century as growing in
Sogdiana (K'afi) and resembling the hou-p'o J3I ft (Magnolia hypoleuca),
Japanese ho-no-ki* The Pen ts*ao kan mu has therefore placed this
notice as an appendix to hou-p'o. This Sogdian plant and its name
remain unidentified. At the outset it is most improbable that a Mag-
nolia is involved; this is a typical genus of the far east, which to my
knowledge has not yet been traced in any Iranian region. BOISSIER'S
1 Materia Indica, Vol. II, p. 424.
2 Dictionary, Vol. V, p. 441.
1 Cf. for instance kakinduka (" Diospyros tomentosa") Uriya kendhu, Bengal,
kend.
4 Gen lei pen ts'ao, Ch. 12, p. 56 b; Pen ts'ao kan mu, Ch. 35 A, p. 4; STUART!
Chinese Materia Medica, p. 255.
THE BASIL 589
"Flora Orientalis" does not contain any Magnolia. The foreign name
is apparently a compound, the second element of which, lo-lo, is iden-
tical with the Indian-Chinese name of the basil, so that it is justifiable
to suppose that the entire name denotes an Iranian variety of the basil
or another member of the genus Ocimum.
The basil is styled in Middle Persian palangamutk, in New Persian
palanmifk, Arabic-Persian fakmjmufk, faranjmu$k, Abu Mansur:
faranjamuSk (Armenian p*alangamu$k}, 1 the second element mu$k or
mi$k meaning "musk," and the first component denoting anything of
a motley color, like a panther or giraffe. The significance of the word,
accordingly, is "spotted and musky." This definition is quite plausible,
for the leaves of some basils are spotted. JOHN PARKINSON, 2 discussing
the various names of the basil, remarks, "The first is usually called
Ocimum vulgar e, or vulgatius, and Ocimum Citratum. In English, Com-
mon or Garden Basill. The other is called Ocimum minimum, or Gario-
phyllatum, Clove Basill, or Bush Basill. The last eyther of his place, or
forme of his leaves, being spotted and curled, or all, is called Ocimum
Indicum maculatum, latifolium and crispum. In English according to the
Latine, Indian Basill, broade leafed Basill, spotted or curled Basill,
which you please." 3 The Arabic forms are phonetically developed from
Persian palan; and it is somewhat surprising that R. DozY 4 explains
Arabic faranjmufk as "musk of the Franks," although he refers to the
variants baranj and falanj.
While there is a certain resemblance between the Middle-Persian
name and our Chinese transcription, I do not believe that the two
can be identified. The Chinese calls for an initial sonant and a u- vowel;
whereas the Iranian form, as positively corroborated by the Armenian
loan-word, is possessed of an initial surd with following a. I am rather
inclined to regard *bu-lan as a Sogdian word, and to derive it from
Sogdian boba, bodan ("perfume"). 5 The name *bu-lan ra-lak would
accordingly signify "aromatic basil" (corresponding to our "sweet
basil"), the peculiar aroma being the prominent characteristic of the
1 HuBscHMANN, Armen. Gram., p. 254. According to others, this word would
refer to Ocimum gratissimum, the shrubby basil, but practically this makes no
difference, as the properties and employment of the herbs are the same.
2 Paradisi in sole paradisus terrestris, p. 450 (London, 1629). The technical
term of the botanists in describing the leaves is subtus punctata (G. BENTHAM,
Labiatarum genera, p. 5; DE CANDOLLE, Prodromus, pars XII, p. 32).
3 LINNE (Species plantarum, Vol. I, p. 597, Holmiae, 1753) has Ocymum latifo-
lium maculatum sive crispum.
4 Supplement aux dictionnaires arabes, Vol. II, p. 262.
6 R. GAUTHIOT, Essai sur le vocalisme du sogdien, pp. 45, 101, 102; F. W. K.
MULLER, Handschriften-Reste in Estrangelo-Schrift, II, p. 35.
590
SlNO-lRANICA
herb. As it is localized in Sogdiana, it is perfectly justifiable to regard
the term as Sogdian; it may be, however, that the second component did
not form part of the Sogdian word, and is an addition of C'en Ts'aii-k'i;
it is also possible that the term applies to another species of Ocimum or
to a peculiar variety of Ocimum basilicum, differentiated by cultiva-
tion. It is well known that the New-Persian word boi, bo (" scent, per-
fume") enters into composition with a number of aromatics; 1 and
Persian naz-bo is indeed a designation of the basil, and means "having
an agreeable odor." In the same manner we have Sanskrit gandhapatra
("fragrant leaf, basil").
From India one or more species of Ocimum (basilicum, sanctum,
and gratissimum) spread into the Malayan Archipelago. The Sanskrit
term surasi or surasd has been adopted by Malayan sulasi, Javanese
selasih or sulasih, Sunda salasih. Javanese has likewise received tulasih
or telasih from Sanskrit tulasi? The two surasd, the white and black
varieties of the Tulsi-plant, appear in the Bower Manuscript. 3 In the
folk-lore of India the plant plays an extensive role. 4 ODORIC OF POR-
DENONE relates, "In this country every man hath before his house a
plant of twigs as thick as a pillar would be here, and this never withers
as long as it gets water." YULE S justly comments that this plant is the
sacred tulasi (Ocimum sanctum) . It is widely employed in the pharma-
copoeia of the Persians and Arabs. 6 Arabic terms are: badruj, xauk,
rixdn, keblr, aqm, xamdxim.
1 HUBSCHMANN, Armen. Gram., p. 123. Cf. also above, p. 462; and HORN,
Neupers. Etymol., No. 240.
2 Cf. H. KERN, Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde, 1880, p. 564.
3 HOERNLE'S edition, p. 22. There are also the forms suravalH, surasdgrarn,
and surasagraja, the two last-named relating to the white variety.
4 YULE, Hobson-Jobson, p. 931.
5 Cathay, new ed. by Cordier, Vol. II, p. 116.
6 LECLERC, Traite des simples, Vol. I, pp. 92, 367, 403, 404, 456, 474; Vol. II,
pp. 100, 104, 191, 375, 390.
APPENDIX V
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON LOAN-WORDS IN TIBETAN
In my "Loan- Words in Tibetan" (Toung Pao, 1916, pp. 403-552)
I was obliged to deal succinctly with some of the problems which are
discussed at greater 1 ength in this volume. The brief notes given there
on saffron, cummin, almond, alfalfa, coriander, etc., are now super-
seded by the contributions here inserted. A detailed history of Guinea
pepper (No. 237) is now ready in manuscript, and will appear as a chapter
in my "History of the Cultivated Plants of America." The numbers
of the following additions refer to those of the former article.
Note the termination -e in the loan-words derived from the Indian
vernaculars: bram-ze, neu-le, ma-he, sen-ge, ban-de, bhan-ge. This -e
appears to be identical with the nominative -e of Magadhi.
49. ga-bur, camphor. Sir GEORGE A. GRIERSON (see below) observes,
"The softening of initial k to g is, I think, certainly not Indian." The
Tibetan form has always been a mystery to me : it is not only the initial
g, but also the labial sonant b, which are striking as compared with the
surds in Skr. karpura. As is well known, this word has migrated west-
ward, the initial k being retained everywhere: Persian-Arabic kdfur
(GARCIA: capur and cafur), Spanish alcanfor (ACOSTA: canfora). These
forms share the loss of the medial r with Tibetan. This phenomenon
pre-existed in Indian; for in Hindustani we have kapur, in Singhalese
kapuru, in Javanese and Malayan kdpur. The Mongols have adopted
from the Tibetans the same word as gabur; but, according to KOVALEV-
SKI (p. 2431), there is also a Tibeto-Mongol spelling gad-pu-ra: this
can only be a transcription of the Chinese type PS ^ H kie-pu-lo,
anciently *g'ia5-bu-la, based on an Indian original *garpura, or
*garbura. Tibetan ga-bur, of course, cannot be based on the Chinese
form; but the latter doubtless demonstrates that, within the sphere of
Indian speech, there must have been a dialectic variant of the word with
initial sonant.
54. The Pol. D. (27, p. 31) gives naliSam (printed aliSam) as a
Mongol word; assuredly it is not Tibetan. The corresponding Manchu
word is ocalxdri.
58. Regarding Sin-kun, see above, p. 362.
60. With respect to the Chinese transcription su-ki-mi-lo-si, PELLIOT
(Toung Pao, 1912, p. 455) had pointed out that the last element si
591
5Q2 SlNO-lRANICA
does not form part of the transcription. This is most likely, but the
Sino-Indian word is thus recorded in the Pen ts'ao kan mu.
64. Add: Skr. also bildla, birdla.
65. Sikkim noile, Dhimal nyul, Bodo nyulai ("ichneumon").
74. ban-de, as suggested by my friend W. E. Clark of the Univer-
sity of Chicago, is connected with Pali and Jaina Prakrit bhante, Skr.
bhadanta ("reverend").
79. I have traced Tibetan sendha-pa to Sanskrit sindhuja. This, as
a matter of fact, is correct, but from a philological viewpoint the Tibetan
form is based on Sanskrit saindhava with the same meaning ("relating
to the sea, relating to or coming from the Indus, a horse from the Indus
country, rock-salt from the Indus region"). The same word we find in
Chinese garb as 3fc K c sien-t'o-p'o, *sian-da-bwa, explained as "rock-
salt" (Fan yi min yi tsi, section 25). Tokharian has adopted it in the
form sindhdp orsintdp (S. LEVI, Journal asiatique, 1911, II, pp. 124, 139).
158. The recent discussion opened in the Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society (1917, p. 834) by Mr. H. BEVERIDGE in regard to the
title tarxan (tarkhan, originally tarkan), then taken up by Dr. F. W.
THOMAS (ibid., 1918, p. 122 ), and resumed by BEVERIDGE (1918, p. 314),
induces me to enlarge my previous notes on this subject, and to trace
the early history of this curious term as accurately as in the present state
of science is possible.
The word tarkan is of Old-Turkish, not of Mongol, origin. It is first
recorded during the T'ang dynasty (A.D. 618-906) as the designation of
a dignity, usually preceded by a proper name, both in the Old-Turkish
inscriptions of the Orkhon (for instance, Apa Tarkan) and in the Chinese
Annals of the T'ang (cf. THOMSEN, Inscriptions de 1'Orkhon, pp. 59,
131, 185; RADLOFF, Altturk. Inschriften, p. 369, and Wdrterb. Turk-
Dialecte, Vol. Ill, col. 851; MARQUART, Chronologic d. altturk. In-
schriften, p. 43; HIRTH, Nachworte zur Inschrift des Tonjukuk,
pp. 55-56). An old Chinese gloss relative to the significance of the
title does not seem to exist, or has not yet been traced. According to
Hirth, the title was connected with the high command over the troops.
The modern Chinese interpretation is "ennobled:" the title is be-
stowed only on those who have gained merit in war (WATTERS, Essays,
p. 372). The Tibetan gloss indicated by me, "endowed with great
power, or empowered with authority," inspires confidence. The subse-
quent explanation, "exempt from taxes," seems to be a mere make-
shift and to take too narrow a view of the matter. A lengthy disserta-
tion on the meaning of the title is inserted in the Ain-i Akbari of 1597
(translation of BLOCHMANN, p. 364) ; but it must not be forgotten that
what holds good for the Mongol and Mogul periods is not necessarily
