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 A weight of three mina from the Assyrian city Nimrod (British Museum) |
1 Money and weights
Mesopotamia
Four weights found in Persepolis indicate that the mina was 499.80
gr.
Subdivisions of the
shekel:
The purity of
silver:
Silver in the Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid period contained 1/8 alloy, i.e. silver had 87.5 % purity. Sometimes, and chronologically increasingly, silver is characterized as qalû, "pure", which may have had a higher purity. The tetradrachms of the Hellenistic period (see below) had purity well above 90%. Cf. Vargyas (2001) 13-17; Mørkholm (1991) 5. |
 |
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Persia
Phoenicia;
Israel
The weight of the sheqel was locally
different.
|
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Persian coin (©!!)
|
Greek: Attic standard (and Ptolemaic standard)
Weight
In the "Solonian" system:
Coins
Note. In the Seleucid empire the standard coin was the
tetradrachm, “stater”. Development of weights: Alexander: 17.28 gr.; In Antioch: ca. 300
BC 17.00 gr.; ca. 172 BC: 16.80 gr.; ca. 105 BC 16.30 gr. – decline well
below 15.00 gr. Elsewhere in the second century the standard remained 16.80
gr.; Athens New Style tetradrachms show a weight increase to about 17.00 gr.
from the 16.60/16.80 of the preceding issues.
In the Ptolemaic empire Ptolemy I Soter began reducing the weight to 15.8 gr. > 14.9 > 14.3/14.4 gr. in ca. 290 BC > 14.2 in the early first century BC. (Mørkholm (1991) 8. |
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 A Roman weight from the Saalburg |
Rome
Weights:
Duncan-Jones: 1 libra = 323 gr
(better than 327 or 324 g)
Coinage, 211-157/156 (1 denarius = 1/72 libra of silver):
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Coinage, 157/156 -ca.130 (1 denarius = 1/84 libra of silver):
Coinage, after the revaluation of ca.130 BCE:
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 Aureus of Augustus (©!!) |
Augustus:
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Diocletian, Edict on Maximum Prizes
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© Bert van der Spek for
Livius.Org, 2004 Revision: 24 February 2007 |
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Money, Weights and Measures in Antiquity
Egyptian measure of liquid capacity, with the cartouche of Thutmose III (1479-1425). (Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden)
2
Measures of capacity
Mesopotamia (Late Babylonian; both dry and liquid)
1 kor
(GUR, kurru) |
= 5 bushel
|
= 30 seah
|
= 180 qa
|
= 180 liter
|
1 bushel
(PI, pânu) |
= 6 seah
|
= 36 qa
|
= 36 liter
|
|
1 seah
(BÁN, sûtu) |
= 6 qa
|
= 6 liter
|
||
1 qa
(qa, SÌLA, qû) |
= 1 liter
|
- Other values for the qa: 0.84 and 0.97 liter
- 1 qa = 2 mina of water
- 1 ninda (akalu?) = 0.1 liter
- 1 ardabu = 1 artabê (Old Persian loanword; Aramaic ardab) = ca. 52 liter
Greek
(after G. Reger (1994), 351)
Attic dry
measures (metra xêra):
1 medimnos
|
= 6 hekteis
|
= 48 choinikes
|
= 192 kotylai
|
= 52.176 liter
|
1 hekteus
|
= 8 choinikes
|
= 32 kotylai
|
= 8.696 liter
|
|
1 choinix
|
= 4 kotylai
|
= 1.087 liter
|
||
1 kotylê
|
= 0.272 liter
|
- Alternative values: 1 medimnos = 54 liters
- 1 choinix or 1.087 liter was the Attic ration standard for wheat
- Athenian agora examples of kotylai range between 0.267-0.300 liters
- 1 Attic medimnos (52.176 liter) is almost equivalent to 6 modii (52.416 liter)
- 1 kotyle (0.272 liter) is almost equal to ½ Roman sextarius (0.273)
- The capacity of the artabê is controversial: 40 choinikes and 30 choinikesare
both possible.
Liquid
measures (metra hygra):
1 metrêtês
|
= 4 kophinoi
|
= 12 choes
|
= 144 kotylai
|
= 37.4 (40.32?) liter
|
1 kophinos
|
= 3 choes
|
= 36 kotylai
|
= 9.35 (10.08?) liter
|
|
1 chous
|
= 12 kotylai
|
= 3.12 (3.36?) liter
|
||
1 kotylê
|
= 0.26 (0.28?) liter
|
- 1 keramion = 2/3 metrêtês = 8 choes = 24.93 (26.88?) liter
Rome
Dry
measures:
1 modius
|
= 16 sextarii
|
= 8.736 liter
|
= 0.546 liter
|
- Alternative values: 1 modius = 9 liter (Rickman) or 8.62 liter (Rathbone)
- 1 modius of wheat after threshing (Pliny, Nat.
Hist. 18.66)
Light
|
= 20 librae
|
= 6.55 kg
|
1liter = 0.75 kg
|
Medium
|
= 205/6 librae
|
= 6.82 kg
|
l liter = 0.78 kg
|
Heavy
|
= 21¾ librae
|
= 7.12 kg
|
1liter = 0.82 kg
|
- Rickman (1980)
xiii: "Therefore 1 ton of wheat on average = approx. 150 modii or 25medimnoi",
i.e. 1 modius = 6.67 kg of wheat
- 6 modii (52.416 liter) are almost equivalent to 1 Attic medimnos (52.176 liter)
- 1 sextarius (0.546) is almost equal to 2 Greek kotylai (0.544 liter)
- 1 modius castrensis cumulatus = 1.5 modii Italici = 24 sextarii
- 1 modius castrensis 'xystos' = 1 3/8modii
Italici = 22 sextarii
Liquid
measures:
1 culleus
|
= 20 amphorae
|
= 160 congii
|
= 960 sextarii
|
517.11 liters
|
1 amphora
|
= 8 congii
|
= 48 sextarii
|
25.86 liter
|
|
= 6 sextarii
|
3.23 liter
|
|||
1 sextarius
|
0.54 liter
|
- 1 amphora (or quadrantal) corresponded to one cubic pes of liquid, i.e. a cube of 29.57 × 29.57 × 29.57 cm, or 25.86 liter.
- The sextarius could be divided into 2 heminae of 0.27 liter.
Money, Weights and Measures in Antiquity
Length & surface
|
||
3
Measures of length and area of surface
Mesopotamia
Length
1 UŠ
|
6 ropes
|
12 suppu
|
60 rods
|
120 reeds
|
240 nikkas
|
720 cubits
|
360 m
|
1 rope
(ašlu) |
2 suppu
|
10 rods
|
20 reeds
|
40 nikkas
|
120 cubits
|
60 m
|
|
1 suppu
|
5 rods
|
10 reeds
|
20 nikkas
|
60 cubits
|
30 m
|
||
1 rod
(nindanu) |
2 reeds
|
4 nikkas
|
12 cubits
|
6 m
|
|||
1 reed
(GI, qanû) |
2 nikkas
|
6 cubits
|
3 m
|
||||
1 nikkas
|
3 cubits
|
1½ m
|
|||||
1 cubit
(KÙŠ, ammatu) |
½ m
|
- Very long distances:
- 1 stage (DANNA, bêru) = 300 UŠ = 10,800 m
- 1 stage is about 2 parasanges
- 1 UŠ is about 2 Greek stades
- Very short measures:
- 1 finger (ŠU.SI, ubanu) = 1/24 cubit =
2.083 cm
Surface
area
Old
Babylonian: 1 BÙR, bûru = 18 IKU, ikû "dike" = 6.48
ha.
The Neo-Babylonians had two ways of measuring surface.
The Neo-Babylonians had two ways of measuring surface.
1.
Measuring the sides, mostly in "reeds". 1 square
reed = 49 square cubits = 12.25 sq.m.
2.
Measuring in seed ratios. In Babylon and
Ur 100 ×
100 cubits equate 331/3 liters
of grain, in Uruk 36 liters. Thus:
Babylon
|
Uruk
|
|
1 liter (SÌLA, qa)
|
= 300 cubit² = 75 m²
|
= 277.777 cub.² = 69.444 m²
|
1 seah (BÁN, sûtu)
|
= 1800 cubit² = 450 m²
|
= 1666.666 cub.² = 416.666 m²
|
1 bushel (PI, pânu)
|
= 10800 cubit² = 0.27 ha
|
= 10,000 cub.² = 0.25 ha
|
1 kor (GUR, kurru)
|
= 54,000 cubit² = 1.35 ha
|
= 50,000 cub.² = 1.25 ha.
|
Greek
Length
1 stadion
|
= 6 plethra
|
= 600 feet
|
= 9600 fingers
|
= 177.3 meter
|
1 plethron
|
= 100 feet
|
= 1600 fingers
|
= 29.55 meter
|
|
1 pous (foot)
|
= 16 fingers
|
= 29.55 cm
|
||
1 daktylos (finger)
|
= 1.847 cm
|
- In this table, Delphian values were given.
- Alternative values for the stadion:
- 192.28 (Olympic)
- 181.3 (Epidaurus)
- 186.0 (Attica)
- 184.3 (Athens)
- 184.80 meter (Parthenon)
Other length measures:
- 1 parasange = 30 stadia (5,328-5,760 meter; about one hour walking).
- 1 rope (schoinion) = 52.5 meter.
- 1 cubit (pêchys) = 24 fingers = 44.36 cm (Attic) or 48.08 cm (Olympic)
- 1 plethron = 66 2/3 cubits
Surface
area
- 1 square plethron = 100 × 100 feet
- = 0.0875 ha. (Attic foot, 29.57 cm)
- = 0.1027 ha. (Oympic foot, 32.05 cm)
- = 0.095 ha (Parthenon foot, 30.8 cm)
- 1 square cubit
- = 0.197 m² (Attic cubit, 44.36 cm)
- = 0.231 m² = (Olympic cubit, 48.08 cm)
- 1 aroura or setat (Egypt, Old kingdom to Ptolemaic Period) = 100 × 100 "royal cubits" (52.5 cm) = 2756.25 m² = 0.276 ha. This is more or less equivalent to one Roman iugerum (0.252 ha).
Rome
Length
1 mile
(milia passuum) |
= 8 stades
|
= 1000 pace
|
= 5000 feet
|
= 1.48 km
|
1 stadium
|
= 125 pace
|
= 625 feet
|
= 185 meters
|
|
1 pace (passus)
|
= 5 feet
|
= 1.48 meters
|
||
1 foot (pes)
|
= 29.57 cm
|
Surface-
area
1 centuria
|
= 100 heredia
|
= 200 iugera
|
= 400 actûs
|
= 50.365 ha
|
1 heredium
|
= 2 iugera
|
= 4 actûs
|
= 0.5036 ha
|
|
= 2 actûs
|
= 0.2518 ha
|
|||
= 0.1259 ha
|
- 1 actus quadratus = 120 × 120 feet (14,400 sq. feet)
- 1 iugerum (0.2518 ha) is more or less equivalent to 1 Egyptian aroura(0.2756 ha)
Money, Weights and Measures in Antiquity
Egyptian measure of liquid capacity, with the cartouche of Thutmose IV (1401-1391). (Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden)
4 Approximate equations
Money and
weights
- 1 Babylonian shekel = 2 Greek drachms = 2 Roman
denarii = 8,x grams
Distance
- 1 Babylonian stage is about 2 Persian/Greek
parasanges
- 1 Babylonian UŠ is about 2 Greek stades
Surface +
capacity
- 1 iugerum (0.2518 ha) is more or less equivalent to 1 Egyptian aroura(0.2756 ha)
- 1 Persian artabe
- = 1 medimnos and 3 choinikes (Herodotus 1.192
- or exactly 1 medimnos (Suid. Hesychius).
- 1 Egyptian artabe
- = 4.5 modii Italici = 38.78 liters and holds 30.28 kg of Egyptian
wheat
- = ca. 1 Babylonian pânu (36 liter)
- = 24-42 Greek choinikes (L&S s.v.)
- 6 Roman modii (52.416 liter) are almost equivalent to 1 Attic medimnos(52.176 liter)
- 1 kotyle (0.272 liter) is almost equal to ½ Roman sextarius (0.273)
5 Some implications
Assuming 1 liter wheat = 0.78 kg and 1 liter barley = 0.62
kg, it implies sowing 133 l. = 82.5 kg. barley per ha. in Babylon and 144 l. = 89.3 kg/ha.
in Uruk. Note that sowing ratios
in the third millennium ranged from 25-37 liters only in the south; from 41-166
liters in Sippar (Jacobsen 1982); cf. Rome: 4 modii/iugerum wheat = 140 l. = 109.2 kg/ha; 6 modii
barley per iugerum = 210 l. = 130 kg. barley p. ha. cf. Varro 1.44.1. Sicily: 6
modii p. iugerum wheat = 210 l. = 163.8 kg/ha. (Cicero, Verr. 2.3.112).
Seed used in Iraq S. of Babylon (1957-1959): wheat: 80-100 kg/ha; barley 108-128 kg/ha (Poyck, p. 50, table 4.8).
Egypt: Standard sowing rate: 1 artabe = 40 liters = 31 kg to the aroura = 145 l. = 113 kg/ha . Note, however, P. Col. 270, col. 1 = Edgar/Hunt 39 (256 BCE): sowing rate: ½ artabe = 20 l. to the aroura = 73 l. = 57 kg/ha "as seed for the wheat bearing land ... and for the barley bearing land a proportionate amount". Rent: 7 1/8 artabae per aroura, or: "wheat at the rate of one artabe for 1 drachm 2 obols in copper and barley at a proportionate rate" (3:5). Thus return minimum: 1:14. Crawford (Kerkeosiris, 125-7) assumes an average yield of 1:10 in the Ptolemaic period. Rathbone (1991) 243.
Seed used in Iraq S. of Babylon (1957-1959): wheat: 80-100 kg/ha; barley 108-128 kg/ha (Poyck, p. 50, table 4.8).
Egypt: Standard sowing rate: 1 artabe = 40 liters = 31 kg to the aroura = 145 l. = 113 kg/ha . Note, however, P. Col. 270, col. 1 = Edgar/Hunt 39 (256 BCE): sowing rate: ½ artabe = 20 l. to the aroura = 73 l. = 57 kg/ha "as seed for the wheat bearing land ... and for the barley bearing land a proportionate amount". Rent: 7 1/8 artabae per aroura, or: "wheat at the rate of one artabe for 1 drachm 2 obols in copper and barley at a proportionate rate" (3:5). Thus return minimum: 1:14. Crawford (Kerkeosiris, 125-7) assumes an average yield of 1:10 in the Ptolemaic period. Rathbone (1991) 243.
Returns:
- Babylonia 15 fold (assumption Jacobsen 1982)
- = 1995 liter per hectare = 1237 kg per hectare
barley;
- a 24 fold return as rent is attested in the
Murashu archive = 3192 l/ha = 1974 kg/ha.
- Uruk:
15 fold
- = 1340 kg/ha.
- 24 fold = 2142.72 kg/ha
- Modern Iraq (1960)
- Wheat returns: 512-884 kg/ha;
- Barley returns: 560-896 kg/ha.
- Low average harvests in 50% fallow areas; higher
in 31.2 % fallow areas, i.e. per year: 1024 kg-1178 kg wheat; 1020-1195 kg/ha., i.e. 10-fold at a maximum in one year. Cf Poyck, p. 48: table 4.7 (using mesharas = 0.25 ha.).
- Comments Poyck:
the yields are very low due to salinization and the grazing of cattle on
young barley (a practice forbidden in the codex Hammurabi).
- Jacobsen (1982) mentions the returns in
1954-1956: 1100-1200 l/ha (barley) = 682-744 kg/ha.
- Italy:
6 fold (?)
- = 780 kg/ha
- Sicily:
wheat 8 fold
- = 1310.4 kg/ha
- In a biennial system the returns over the years
are diminished to one half.
Some implications
|
Money, Weights and Measures in Antiquity
Egyptian measure of liquid capacity, with the cartouche of Thutmose IV (1401-1391). (Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden)
4
Approximate equations
Money and
weights
- 1 Babylonian shekel = 2 Greek drachms = 2 Roman
denarii = 8,x grams
Distance
- 1 Babylonian stage is about 2 Persian/Greek
parasanges
- 1 Babylonian UŠ is about 2 Greek stades
Surface +
capacity
- 1 iugerum (0.2518 ha) is more or less equivalent to 1 Egyptian aroura(0.2756 ha)
- 1 Persian artabe
- = 1 medimnos and 3 choinikes (Herodotus 1.192
- or exactly 1 medimnos (Suid. Hesychius).
- 1 Egyptian artabe
- = 4.5 modii Italici = 38.78 liters and holds 30.28 kg of Egyptian
wheat
- = ca. 1 Babylonian pânu (36 liter)
- = 24-42 Greek choinikes (L&S s.v.)
- 6 Roman modii (52.416 liter) are almost equivalent to 1 Attic medimnos(52.176 liter)
- 1 kotyle (0.272 liter) is almost equal to ½ Roman sextarius (0.273)
5 Some
implications
Assuming 1 liter wheat = 0.78 kg and 1 liter barley = 0.62
kg, it implies sowing 133 l. = 82.5 kg. barley per ha. in Babylon and 144 l. = 89.3 kg/ha.
in Uruk. Note that sowing ratios
in the third millennium ranged from 25-37 liters only in the south; from 41-166
liters in Sippar (Jacobsen 1982); cf. Rome: 4 modii/iugerum wheat = 140 l. = 109.2 kg/ha; 6 modii
barley per iugerum = 210 l. = 130 kg. barley p. ha. cf. Varro 1.44.1. Sicily: 6
modii p. iugerum wheat = 210 l. = 163.8 kg/ha. (Cicero, Verr. 2.3.112).
Seed used in Iraq S. of Babylon (1957-1959): wheat: 80-100 kg/ha; barley 108-128 kg/ha (Poyck, p. 50, table 4.8).
Egypt: Standard sowing rate: 1 artabe = 40 liters = 31 kg to the aroura = 145 l. = 113 kg/ha . Note, however, P. Col. 270, col. 1 = Edgar/Hunt 39 (256 BCE): sowing rate: ½ artabe = 20 l. to the aroura = 73 l. = 57 kg/ha "as seed for the wheat bearing land ... and for the barley bearing land a proportionate amount". Rent: 7 1/8 artabae per aroura, or: "wheat at the rate of one artabe for 1 drachm 2 obols in copper and barley at a proportionate rate" (3:5). Thus return minimum: 1:14. Crawford (Kerkeosiris, 125-7) assumes an average yield of 1:10 in the Ptolemaic period. Rathbone (1991) 243.
Seed used in Iraq S. of Babylon (1957-1959): wheat: 80-100 kg/ha; barley 108-128 kg/ha (Poyck, p. 50, table 4.8).
Egypt: Standard sowing rate: 1 artabe = 40 liters = 31 kg to the aroura = 145 l. = 113 kg/ha . Note, however, P. Col. 270, col. 1 = Edgar/Hunt 39 (256 BCE): sowing rate: ½ artabe = 20 l. to the aroura = 73 l. = 57 kg/ha "as seed for the wheat bearing land ... and for the barley bearing land a proportionate amount". Rent: 7 1/8 artabae per aroura, or: "wheat at the rate of one artabe for 1 drachm 2 obols in copper and barley at a proportionate rate" (3:5). Thus return minimum: 1:14. Crawford (Kerkeosiris, 125-7) assumes an average yield of 1:10 in the Ptolemaic period. Rathbone (1991) 243.
Returns:
- Babylonia 15 fold (assumption Jacobsen 1982)
- = 1995 liter per hectare = 1237 kg per hectare
barley;
- a 24 fold return as rent is attested in the
Murashu archive = 3192 l/ha = 1974 kg/ha.
- Uruk:
15 fold
- = 1340 kg/ha.
- 24 fold = 2142.72 kg/ha
- Modern Iraq (1960)
- Wheat returns: 512-884 kg/ha;
- Barley returns: 560-896 kg/ha.
- Low average harvests in 50% fallow areas; higher
in 31.2 % fallow areas, i.e. per year: 1024 kg-1178 kg wheat; 1020-1195 kg/ha., i.e. 10-fold at a maximum in one year. Cf Poyck, p. 48: table 4.7 (using mesharas = 0.25 ha.).
- Comments Poyck:
the yields are very low due to salinization and the grazing of cattle on
young barley (a practice forbidden in the codex Hammurabi).
- Jacobsen (1982) mentions the returns in
1954-1956: 1100-1200 l/ha (barley) = 682-744 kg/ha.
- Italy:
6 fold (?)
- = 780 kg/ha
- Sicily:
wheat 8 fold
- = 1310.4 kg/ha
- In a biennial system the returns over the years
are diminished to one half.
Some implications
|
Money, Weights and Measures in Antiquity
Bibliography
|
6
Bibliography
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