بنات وردان،، خزوک، خزوک حمام، تدو، تیل چوره، سونکروا صرصر، زیز، جقا، سوسک سرخ، زنجره، جیغاله، جغاله، زبرد، چرویسک، صراد اللیل،

بنات وردان . [ ب َ ت ُ وِ ] (ع اِ مرکب ) آنچه در نجاست است از کرمها. (زمخشری ) صرصر. زیز*. جقا. سوسک سرخ . کرمهای نجاست . (یادداشت مرحوم دهخدا). و رجوع به تذکره ٔ داود ضریر انطاکی ص 88 شود.

* جانوری هم هست کوچکتر از ملخ و شبها بانگ طولانی کند و عربان صرار گویند. (برهان ) (آنندراج ) (از ناظم الاطباء). زنجره . چزد. جیغاله . جقاله . صرصر. ططیگس . (یادداشت بخط مرحوم دهخدا). صرصر** است . (تحفه ٔ حکیم مؤمن ) (اختیارات بدیعی ). و آن حیوانی است کوچک مانند ملخی ... و به شب آواز کند. (اختیارات بدیعی ). حیوانی است که در زیتون حادث شود و او را اهل شام زیز گویند. (ترجمه ٔ صیدنه ). زیزه . ج ، زیزان . و به بربری أبزیز و به عربی بزیز. (از دزی ج 1 ص 2 و 618). رجوع به زنجره شود. || بصل الفار. (یادداشت بخط مرحوم دهخدا). پیاز. (ناظم الاطباء). رجوع به پیاز و بصل الفار شود.

** صرصر

زبرد گویند و آن حیوانیست کوچک مانند ملخ کوچک که بشب آواز کند و بشیرازی چرویسک خوانند و دیسقوریدوس گوید چون بریان کنند و بخورند درد مثانه را سودمند بود و جالینوس گوید بعد از آنکه خشک کنند کسی که قولنج داشته باشد یک عدد با یکدانه فلفل بخورد سودمند بود و شربتی از وی سه عدد بود یا پنج عدد و یا هفت عدد یا مثل فلفل در وقت هیجان درد و صعوبت آن بخورد نافع بود و صاحب منهاج گوید بپزند و در گوش چکانند درد گوش ساکن کند

صاحب تحفه می‌نویسد: صرصر در خانه‌ها شبها بسیار صدا می‌کند و در اصفهان زنجره و در تنکابن جیک نامند و اضافه می‌کند خشک‌کرده او از سه عدد تا ده عدد یا هم‌عدد آن فلفل جهت دفع قولنج صعب و ریاح غلیظ مجرب دانسته‌اند

صاحب مخزن الادویه می‌نویسد: به ضم و فتح هر دو صاد آمده و عربیست و بسریانی و شیرازی چهره رسک و عربان صراد اللیل نامند

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بنات وردان

بفتح با و نون و الف و تاء مثناه فوقانیه و فتح واو و سکون را و فتح دال مهملتین و الف و نون بفارسی سوسک و عوام تدو و خزوک حمام نیز و بهندی و اهل بنکاله تیل چوره و سونکروا نامند

ماهیت ان

حیوانی است اکثر سرخ رنک و بعضی سفید و بعضی سرخ تیره و پر آن براق و زیر شکم آن سفید و دو سبل و شش پا دارد و سر آن زرد و تخم آن سرخ رنک شبیه بلوبیا و در حمامات و قریب آبها و جایهای نمناک متعفن تکون می یابد و بدبو است و اهل چین و بعض فرنک آن را در مربا ساخته می خورند

طبیعت ان

در دوم کرم و خشک

افعال و خواص آن

محلل و مجفف آشامیدن سوختۀ آن با یک مثقال و نیم عسل جهت عسر النفس و دفع احتباس بول و حرقت آن و اسقاط نمودن جنین و تسکین درد رحم و رفع سموم هوام و نافض حمیات و قطور مطبوخ اجواف سائیدۀ آن در روغن زیت جهت تسکین درد کوش و ضماد آن با موم و زردۀ تخم مرغ بوزن آن جهت درد رحم و کرده و احتباس بول و چون آن را با قردمانا و اندکی از فسافس که بفارسی ساس کویند با روغن زیتون بجوشانند تا مهرا کردد تدهین بدان جهت بواسیر و امراض مقعده کویند مجرب است و با انجیر جهت قروح ساق نافع و بیضۀ آن در دفع قروح مذکوره بیعدیل و خوردن خون آن با ماکولات مورث برص و بخور زرنیخ و نوشادر باعث کریزانیدن آنست

مخزن الادویه عقیلی خراسانی

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زَنجـِره (به انگلیسی: Cicada) یا مو یا جیرجیرک دشتی ویا در گویش خراسانی چز، گونه‌ای حشره است از راستهٔ نیم‌بالان (Hemiptera)، رده زنجره‌ریختان (Cicadomorpha) یا Auchenorrhyncha که دارای چشمانی ریز و با فاصله از هم بر روی سر و بال‌های شفاف ترانما با رگ‌بندی زیاد است.

زنجره‌ها با ملخ‌ها خویشاوندی ندارد بلکه خویشاوند زنجرک‌ها (leafhoppers) و حشره بزاقدار (spittle-bugs) است.

حدود ۱۵۰۰ گونه زنجره در جهان وجود دارد که غالباً در مناطق معتدل گرم تا گرمسیر سکونت دارند. برای مثال ۲۰۲ گونه در استرالیا، ۱۰۰ گونه در جزایر اسپانیا و تنها یک نمونه در پادشاهی بریتانیا می‌زید. گونهٔ بریتانیایی آن در ۶۱ درجهٔ شمالی پراکنده‌اند. این حشرات عموماً درخت کاج را ترجیح می‌دهند ولی در لاروهای پیر پوست اندازی بر روی ساقهٔ علف و گاه سرخس نیز دیده شده‌است. به طور کلی چرخهٔ حیات جیرجیرک‌ها چندین ساله‌است و اکثر این دوره به صورت لارو و زیر زمین سپری می‌شود. حشرهٔ نا بالغ با سوراخ کردن ریشهٔ گیاه و مکیدن شیرهٔ آن تغذیه می‌کند. در بعضی گونه‌ها زمان زیادی تا بلوغ و جیرجیرک شدن صرف می‌شود. از جمله magicicada از آمریکای شمالی که به علت چرخهٔ حیات ۱۷ ساله‌اش شهرت دارد. گونه ای دیگر از این این حشره با نام محلی تژق وجود دارد که در خراسان جنوبی شهرستان بیرجند در فصول گرم سال یعنی از نیمه های بهار دیده می شود. تژق هم لابه لای درختان و بوته های خشک گیاهان را برای اقامت بیشتر ترجیح میدهد. تژق مصرف خوراکی دارد و به ذائقه مردم محلی طعم لذیذی هم دارد. مردم محلی بیرجندتژق را مثال تخمه شور و مصرف میکنند.

عکس یک زنجره بر روی تنه درخت آلوچه، روستای خلیفه محله رودسر، استان گیلان

همهٔ حشرات به‌وسیله پرواز کردن از خطر فرار می‌کنند، اما ملخها وجیرجیرکها جهش می‌کنند. این حشرات سنگین دارای پاهای سنیگنی در عقب بدن خود هستند. این حشرات معمولاً می‌تونند ۱ متر (۳ پا) یا بیشتر جهش کنند.

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به عربی زیز*:

الزيز cicada لهذه الحشرة cicada عدة أسماء محلية فتسمى أحيانا حشرة الزّيز لأنها تصدر صوتا يشبه كلمة زيزأو زيز الحصاد، لكن اسمها باللاتينية هو السيكاد تعيش هذه الحشرة في كامل بلاد العالم لكن أكثر انتشارها يكون في الأماكن الجافة مثل الصحارى. ينقسم السيكاد حسب دورة حياته إلى قسمين، سيكاد حولي (سيكاد يوم الكلب) ويعيش فترة بين السنتين إلى خمسة سنوات، والقسم الآخر هو السيكاد الدوري الذي يعيش فترة 13 إلى 17 سنة.

صفاته[عدل]

وهي حشرة ذات جسم ثقيل بالنسبة لحجمها، تمتلك أربعة أجنحة رفيعة تغطي الجزء الخلفي من جسدها، ولها لون داكن. يتراوح طولها بين السنتيمترين والخمسة سنتيمترات، ولها عينان صغيرتان ومتباعدتان.

صوت الزيز[عدل]

الصوت الذي يصدره الزيز ينتج عن اهتزاز طبلتين عند الزيز الذكر وهي عبارة عن غشائين رقيقين من هيكلها الخارجي مع ضلوع ثخينة تشكلان غرفتيّ رنين جانبي أسفل البطن فعند تقليص العضلات الداخلية تنتج صوتا بالضغط ثم يسترخي ليعاود الكرّة ,و يختلف الأمر عن باقي الحشرات التي تنتج الصوت عن طريق حفّ جزئين من جسمها ويغير الزيز من شكل صوته عبر تحريك بطنه اقتراباً أو ابتعادا عن الشجرة التي يقف عليها.

مراجع[عدل]

^ مذكور في : نظام معلومات تصنيفية متكاملة — وصلة : http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=109169 — تاريخ النشر: 2011 — تاريخ الاطلاع: 22 أكتوبر 2013

^ تعديل قيمة معرف موسوعة الحياة (P830) في ويكي بيانات"معرف Cicadidae في موسوعة الحياة". eol.org. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 31 أغسطس 2016.

* زِيز : ج زِيزان [ زيز ] ( ح ): حشره ايست از تيره ى زيزيات و نيم بالان كه روى درختان مى نشيند و صداى زيز زيز مى كند ، سيرسيرك يا جيرجيرك** .

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به کردی سورانی زیکزیکه:

زیکزیکە (بە ئینگلیسی : Cicada)، مێروویەکە لە تۆرەمەی Hemiptera (نیوباڵان). نزیکەی ١٥٠٠ جۆر زیزکزیکە لە جیهاندا بوونی هەیە کە زۆرتر لەو ناوچانەی کە کەش‌ و هەوایەکی فێنک یان گەرمیان هەیە دەژین. بۆ نموونە ٢٠٢ جۆر لە ئوسترالیا، ١٠٠ جۆر لە دوورگەکانی ئیسپانیا و تەنیا یەک جۆریشی لە شانشینیی یەکگرتوودا دەژی. زیکزیکە خزمایەتی لە گەڵ کوللەدا نیە بەڵکوو لەگەڵ سیسرکدا خزمایەتی هەیە.[١] زیکزیکە دەتوانێت ببێتە هۆی زیان گەیشتن بە وەرزێڕی لە بەر ئەوەی کە زیکزیکەی مێو هێلکەکانی خۆی لە نێو قووڵایی لقەکانی دار دەکات.[٢][٣][٤]

پەڕاوێز[دەستکاری]

Jump up ↑ Milne, Lorus; Milne, Margery (1992). The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Insects and Spiders. New York: Alfred A Knopf. ISBN 0-394-50763-0.

Jump up ↑ http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=950DE4DE113AE533A2575AC0A96F9C94649ED7CF

Jump up ↑ http://bugs.osu.edu/~bugdoc/PerioCicada/PeriCicadaBehav.htm

Jump up ↑ http://books.google.com/books?id=7HEr8tU414YC&pg=PR3

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به ترکی:

Ağustos böceği, Hemiptera takımının ağustos böceğigiller (Cicadidae) familyasından böceklerin ortak adıdır. Batılı dillerdeki cicada ve türevi isimleri, Latince (cicada) çekirge sözcüğünden gelir.

Sıcak yerlerde kendilerine özgü koro şeklindeki ötüşleri ile hemen tanınırlar. Ankara yöresinde dişbudak ağustos böceği (Cicada orni) bulunur.

Çin, Malezya, Burma, Kongo ve Latin Amerika'da yiyecek olarak kullanılır. Daha iri olan dişileri tercih edilir.

Isırığı tehlikeli değildir. Çoğunlukla insan vücudunu, ağaç ve bitki gövdeleri ile karıştırdığında ısırır.

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Cicada

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Cicada (disambiguation).

Cicada
Annual cicada, Neotibicen linnei
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Calling song of Magicicada cassini
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Arthropoda
Class:	Insecta
Order:	Hemiptera
Suborder:	Auchenorrhyncha
Infraorder:	Cicadomorpha
Superfamily:	Cicadoidea
Families
Tettigarctidae Cicadidae

The cicadas (/sɪˈkɑːdə/ or /sɪˈkeɪdə/) are a superfamily, the Cicadoidea, ofinsects in the order Hemiptera (true bugs). They are in the suborderAuchenorrhyncha,^[a] along with smaller jumping bugs such as leafhoppers andfroghoppers. It is divided into the Tettigarctidae, with two species in Australia, and Cicadidae, with more than 1,300 species described from around the world; many undescribed species remain.

Cicadas have prominent eyes set wide apart, short antennae, and membranous front wings. They have an exceptionally loud song, produced not by stridulation, but by vibrating drumlike tymbals rapidly. The earliest known fossil Cicadomorpha appeared in the Upper Permian period; extant species occur all around the world in temperate to tropical climates. They typically live in trees, feeding on sap, and laying their eggs in a slit in the bark. Most cicadas are cryptic, singing at night to avoid predators. The periodic cicadas spend most of their lives as underground nymphs, emerging only after 13 or 17 years, which may reduce losses bysatiating their predators.

Cicadas have been featured in literature since the time of Homer's Iliad, and as motifs in art from the Chinese Shang dynasty. They have been used in myths and folklore to represent carefree living and immortality. Cicadas are eaten in various countries, including China, where the nymphs are served deep-fried in Shandong cuisine.

Contents

  [show] 

Etymology[edit]

Look up cicada in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

The name is a direct derivation of the Latin cicada, meaning "tree cricket". American English of central Appalachia retains the name "jarfly".^[1] In ancient Greek, it was called a tettix, and in modern Greek τζιτζίκας, tzitzikas—both names being onomatopoeic.^[b]

Taxonomy and diversity[edit]

Cicadas are arranged into two families: the Tettigarctidae and Cicadidae. The two extant species of Tettigarctidae include one in southern Australia and the other in Tasmania. The family Cicadidae is subdivided into the subfamilies Cicadinae,Tettigadinae, and Cicadettinae;^[2] they are found on all continents except Antarctica. Some previous works also included a family-level taxon called the Tibiceninae. The largest species is the Malaysian emperor cicada Megapomponia imperatoria; its wingspan is up to about 20 cm (8 in).^[3] They are also notable for the great length of time some species take to mature.^[4]

A 17-year cicada, Magicicada,Robert Evans Snodgrass, 1930^[5]

At least 1300 cicada species are distributed worldwide with the majority being in the tropics. Most genera are restricted to a single biogeographical region and many species have a very limited range. This high degree of endemism has been used to study the biogeography of complex island groups such as in Indonesia and the Orient.^[6] There are about 200 described species in Australia and New Zealand,^[c] around 150 in South Africa, over 170 in America north of Mexico,^[7] at least 800 in Latin America,^[8] and over 200 in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific.^[9] About 100 species occur in the Palaearctic. A few species are found in southern Europe,^[4] and a single species is in England, the New Forest cicada,Melampsalta montana, which also occurs in continental Europe.^[10]

Most of the North American species are in the genus Neotibicen: the annual or jar fly or dog-day cicadas (so named because they emerge in late July and August).^[11] The best-known North American genus, however, is Magicicada. Theseperiodical cicadas have an extremely long lifecycle of 13 or 17 years, suddenly and briefly emerging in large numbers.^[11]

Australian cicadas are found on tropical islands and cold coastal beaches around Tasmania, in tropical wetlands, high and low deserts, alpine areas of New South Wales and Victoria, large cities like Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane, and Tasmanian highlands and snowfields. Many of them go by common names such as cherry nose, brown baker, red eye, greengrocer, yellow Monday, whisky drinker, double drummer, and black prince. The Australian greengrocer, Cyclochila australasiae, is among the loudest insects in the world.^[12]

Forty-two species from five genera populate New Zealand, ranging from sea level to mountain tops, and all are endemicto New Zealand and the surrounding islands (Norfolk Island, New Caledonia).^[13]

Mesozoic fossil forewing ofMesogereon superbum, Australia

Palaeontology[edit]

Fossil Cicadomorpha first appeared in the Upper Permian.^[14] The superfamilyPalaeontinoidea contains three families. The Upper Permian Dunstaniidae are found in Australia and South Africa, and also in younger rocks from China. TheUpper Triassic Mesogereonidae are found in Australia and South Africa.^[15]

The giant cicada Prolystra lithographica from Germany Jurassic, about 150–145 Mya

The Palaeontinidae or "giant cicadas" come from the Jurassic and Upper Cretaceous of Eurasia and South America.^[15] The first of these was a forewing discovered in the Taynton Limestone Formation of Oxfordshire, England; it was initially described as a butterfly in 1873, before being recognised as a cicada and renamed Palaeontina oolitica.^[16]

Biology[edit]

Description[edit]

A Japanese Minminzemi (Oncotympana maculaticollis)

Cicadas are large insects made conspicuous by the courtship calls of the males. They are characterised by having three joints in their tarsi, and having small antennae with conical bases and three to six segments, including a setaat the tip.^[17] The Auchenorrhyncha differ from other hemipterans by having a rostrum that arises from the posteroventral part of the head, complex sound-producing membranes, and a mechanism for linking the wings which involves a down-rolled edging on the rear of the forewing and an upwardly protruding flap on the hind wing. Cicadas lack the ability to jump as exhibited by other members of the Auchenorrhyncha. Another defining characteristic is the adaptations of the forelimbs of nymphs for underground life. The relict family Tettigarctidae differ from the Cicadidae in having the prothorax extending as far as the scutellum, and by lacking the tympanal apparatus.^[6]

The adult insect, known as an imago, is 2 to 5 centimetres (1–2 in) in total length in most species, although the largest, the empress cicada (Megapomponia imperatoria), has a head-body length of about 7 centimetres (2.8 in), and its wingspan is 18 to 20 centimetres (7–8 in).^[4][18] Cicadas have prominent compound eyes set wide apart on the sides of the head. The short antennae protrude between the eyes or in front of them. They also have three small ocelli located on the top of the head in a triangle between the two large eyes, and this distinguishes cicadas from other members of the Hemiptera. The mouthparts form a long sharp rostrum which they insert into the plant to feed.^[19] The post-clypeus is a large, nose-like structure that lies between the eyes and makes up most of the front of the head: it contains the pumping musculature.^[20]

The thorax has three segments and houses the powerful wing muscles. They have two pairs of membranous wings that may be hyaline, cloudy or pigmented. The wing venation varies between species and may help in identification. The middle thoracic segment has an operculum on the underside which may extend posteriorly and obscure parts of the abdomen. The abdomen is segmented, with the hindermost segments housing the reproductive organs, and terminates in females with a large, saw-edged ovipositor. In males, the abdomen is largely hollow and used as a resonating chamber.^[19]

The surface of the fore-wing is super-hydrophobic; it is covered with minute waxy cones, blunt spikes which create a water-repellent film. Rain rolls across the surface, removing dirt in the process. In the absence of rain, dew condenses on the wings. When the droplets coalesce, they leap several millimetres into the air, which also serves to clean the wings.^[21]It has been found that bacteria landing on the wing surface are not repelled, rather their membranes are torn apart by the nanoscale-sized spikes, making the wing surface the first-known biomaterial that can kill bacteria.^[22]

Temperature regulation[edit]

Desert cicadas such as Diceroprocta apache are unusual among insects in controlling their temperature by evaporative cooling, analogous to sweating in mammals. When their temperature rises above about 39 °C, they suck excess sap from the food plants and extrude the excess water through pores in the tergum at a modest cost in energy. Such a rapid loss of water can be sustained only by feeding on water-rich xylem sap. At lower temperatures, feeding cicadas would normally need to excrete the excess water. By evaporative cooling, desert cicadas can reduce their bodily temperature by some 5 °C.^[23][24] Some non-desert cicada species such as Magicicada tredecem also cool themselves evaporatively, but less dramatically.^[25] Conversely, many other cicadas can voluntarily raise their body temperatures as much as 22 °C (40 °F) above ambient temperature.^[26]

Song[edit]

Cicada sound-producing organs and musculature.
a, Body of male from below, showing cover-plates;
b, From above, showing drumlike tymbals;
c, Section, muscles that vibrate tymbals;
d, A tymbal at rest;
e, Thrown into vibration, as when singing

The "singing" of male cicadas is not stridulation such as many familiar species of insects produce—for example crickets. Instead, male cicadas have a noisemaker called a tymbal below each side of the anterior abdominal region. The tymbals are structures of the exoskeleton formed into complex membranes with thin, membranous portions and thickened ribs. Contraction of internal muscles buckles the tymbals inwards, thereby producing a click; on relaxation of the muscles, the tymbals return to their original position, producing another click.^[17] The male abdomen is largely hollow, and acts as asound box. By rapidly vibrating these membranes, a cicada combines the clicks into apparently continuous notes, and enlarged chambers derived from the tracheae serve as resonance chambers with which it amplifies the sound. The cicada also modulates the song by positioning its abdomen toward or away from the substrate. Partly by the pattern in which it combines the clicks, each species produces its own distinctive mating songs and acoustic signals, ensuring that the song attracts only appropriate mates.^[11]

	Cicada song MENU 0:00 Song, New Zealand, 2006 Cicada chorus in Japan MENU 0:00 Chorus of Tanna japonensis, Japan, 2011 Cicadas in Greece MENU 0:00 Chorus, Ithaca, 2008 A single cicada calling MENU 0:00 Song, Texas, 2012
Problems playing these files? See media help.

Average temperature of the natural habitat for the South American species Fidicina rana is approximately 29 °C (84 °F). During sound production, the temperature of the tymbal muscles was found to be significantly higher.^[27] Many cicadas sing most actively during the hottest hours of a summer day; roughly a 24-hour cycle.^[28]

Although only males produce the cicadas' distinctive sound, both sexes have membraneous structures called tympana by which they detect sounds; the equivalent of having ears. Males disable their own tympana while calling, thereby preventing damage to their hearing;^[29]a necessity partly because some cicadas produce sounds up to 120 dB (SPL)^[29] which is among the loudest of all insect-produced sounds.^[30] The song is loud enough to cause permanent hearing lossin humans should the cicada sing just outside the listener's ear. In contrast, some small species have songs so high in pitch that the noise is inaudible to humans.^[31]

For the human ear, it is often difficult to tell precisely where a cicada song originates. The pitch is nearly constant, the sound is continuous to the human ear, and cicadas sing in scattered groups. In addition to the mating song, many species have a distinct distress call, usually a broken and erratic sound emitted by the insect when seized or panicked. Some species also have courtship songs, generally quieter, and produced after a female has been drawn to the calling song. Males also produce encounter calls, whether in courtship or to maintain personal space within choruses.^[32]

The song of cicadas is considered by entomologists to be unique to a given species, and a number of resources exist to collect and analyse cicada sounds.^[33]

Life cycle[edit]

Adult cicada emerging from exuvia

In some species of cicada, the males remain in one location and call to attract females. Sometimes several males aggregate and call in chorus. In other species, the males move from place to place, usually with quieter calls while searching for females. The Tettigarctidae differ from other cicadas in producing vibrations in the substrate rather than audible sounds.^[6] After mating, the female cuts slits into the bark of a twig where she deposits her eggs.^[6]

When the eggs hatch, the newly hatched nymphs drop to the ground and burrow. Cicadas live underground as nymphs for most of their lives at depths down to about 2.5 metres (8 ft). Nymphs have strong front legs for digging and excavating chambers in close proximity to roots where they feed on xylem sap. In the process, their bodies and interior of the burrow become coated in anal fluids. In wet habitats, larger species construct mud towers above ground in order to aerate their burrows. In the final nymphal instar, they construct an exit tunnel to the surface and emerge.^[6] They thenmoult (shed their skins) on a nearby plant for the last time, and emerge as adults. The exuviae or abandoned exoskeletons remain, still clinging to the bark of the tree.^[34]

Cicada exuvia

Most cicadas go through a life cycle that lasts from two to five years. Some species have much longer life cycles, such as the North American genus,Magicicada, which has a number of distinct "broods" that go through either a 17-year or, in some parts of the world, a 13-year life cycle. The long life cycles may have developed as a response to predators, such as the cicada killer wasp andpraying mantis.^[35][36][37] A specialist predator with a shorter life cycle of at least two years could not reliably prey upon the cicadas.^[38]

Diet[edit]

Cicada nymphs drink sap from the xylem of various species of trees, including oak, cypress, willow, ash, and maple. While it is common folklore that adults do not eat, they actually do drink plant sap utilizing their sucking mouthparts.^[39]

Locomotion[edit]

Further information: Animal locomotion and Jumping

Cicadas, like other Auchenorrhyncha, are adapted for jumping (saltation),^[40] as well as the usual insect modes oflocomotion, walking and flight. However, they do not walk or run well, and take to the wing to travel distances greater than a few centimetres.^[6] Cicadas can extend their hind legs in under a millisecond to execute a jump, implying elastic storage of energy for sudden release.^[41]

Predators, parasites and pathogens[edit]

Eastern cicada killer wasp (Sphecius speciosus) with cicada prey. United States

Cicadas are commonly eaten by birds and sometimes by squirrels,^[42] as well as bats, wasps, mantises, spiders and robber flies. In times of mass emergence of cicadas, various amphibians, fish, reptiles, mammals and birds change their foraging habits so as to benefit from the glut. Newly hatched nymphs may be eaten by ants, and nymphs living underground are preyed on by burrowing mammals like moles.^[19] In Australia, cicadas are preyed on by the Australian cicada killer wasp (Exeirus lateritius), which stings and stuns cicadas high in the trees, making them drop to the ground where the cicada-hunter mounts and carries them, pushing with its hind legs, sometimes over a distance of a hundred metres, until they can be shoved down into its burrow, where the numb cicada is placed onto one of many shelves in a "catacomb", to form the food-stock for the wasp grub that grows out of the egg deposited there.^[43]

Several fungal diseases infect and kill adult cicadas while another entomopathogenic fungus, Cordyceps spp., attacks nymphs.^[19] Massospora cicadina specifically attacks the adults of periodical cicadas, the spores remaining dormant in the soil between outbreaks.^[44]

Antipredator adaptations[edit]

Further information: Antipredator adaptation and Periodical cicada

Cicada camouflaged on an olive tree. Kassiopi, Corfu, Greece.

Cicadas evade predators with strategies such as camouflage.

Cicadas use a variety of strategies to evade predators. Large cicadas can fly rapidly to escape if disturbed.^[45] Many are extremely well camouflaged^[45][46] to evade predators such as birds that hunt by sight. As well as being coloured like tree bark, they are disruptively patternedto break up their outlines;^[47] their partly transparent wings are held over the body and pressed close to the substrate. The wings are antireflective, avoiding the typical shine of insect cuticle which would break the cicada's camouflage.^[48]

The periodical cicadas (Magicicada) make use of predator satiation: they emerge, all at once, at long intervals of 13 or 17 years; their juveniles are probably the longest-lived of all insect development stages.^[49] Since the number of cicadas in any given area exceeds the amount predators can eat, all available predators are satiated, and the remaining cicadas can breed in peace.^[45][49]

The day-flying cicada Huechys sanguinea warns off predators with itsaposematic red and black coloration. Southeast Asia

Some cicadas such as Hemisciera maculipennis display bright deimatic flash coloration on their hindwings when threatened; the sudden contrast helps to startle predators, giving the cicadas time to escape.^[50] The majority of cicadas are nocturnal and rely on camouflage when at rest, but some species areaposematic; the Malaysian Huechys sanguinea has conspicuous red and black warning coloration, is diurnal, and boldly flies about in full view of possible predators.^[51]

Predators such as the sarcophagid fly Emblemasoma hunt cicadas by sound, being attracted to their song.^[52] Singing males soften their song so that the attention of the listener gets distracted to neighbouring louder singers, or cease singing altogether as a predator approaches. It has been asserted that loud cicada song, especially in chorus, repels predators, but observations of predator responses refute the claim.^[49]

In human culture[edit]

Further information: Insects in culture

In art and literature[edit]

Silver casket with writing utensils, made by the Nuremberg goldsmithWenzel Jamnitzer (1507/08–1585). Silver cicada is at lower left.

Japanese snuff bottle in the form of a cicada, c. 1900

Cicadas have been featured in literature since the time of Homer's Iliad, and as motifs in decorative art from the Chinese Shang dynasty (1766–1122 B.C.).^[d]They are described by Aristotle in his History of Animals and by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History; their mechanism of sound production is mentioned by Hesiodin his poem Works and Days "when the Skolymus flowers, and the tuneful Tettixsitting on his tree in the weary summer season pours forth from under his wings his shrill song".^[54] In the classic 14th-century Chinese novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Diaochan took her name from the sable (diāo) tails and jade decorations in the shape of cicadas (chán), which adorned the hats of high-level officials. In the Japanese novel The Tale of Genji, the title character poetically likens one of his many love interests to a cicada for the way she delicately sheds her robe the way a cicada sheds its shell when molting. A cicada exuviae plays a role in the manga Winter Cicada. Cicadas are a frequent subject of haiku, where, depending on type, they can indicate spring, summer or autumn.^[55]

In music[edit]

Cicadas are featured in the well-known protest song "Como La Cigarra" ("Like the Cicada") written by the Argentinian poet and composer, María Elena Walsh. In the song, the cicada is a symbol of survival and defiance against death. "Como La Cigarra" was famously recorded by Mercedes Sosa, among other Latin American musicians. Another well-known song, "La Cigarra" ("The Cicada"), written by Raymundo Perez Soto, is a song in the mariachi tradition which romanticises the insect as a creature that sings until it dies.^[56]

In mythology and folklore[edit]

Main article: Cicada (mythology)

Cicadas have been used as money, in folk medicine, to forecast the weather, to provide song (in China), and in folklore and myths around the world.^[57] In France, the cicada represents the folklore of Provence and the Mediterranean cities.^[58]

The cicada has represented insouciance since classical antiquity. Jean de La Fontaine began his collection of fables Les fables de La Fontaine with the story La Cigale et la Fourmi (The Cicada and the Ant) based on one of Aesop's fables: in it the cicada spends the summer singing while the ant stores away food, and finds herself without food when the weather turns bitter.^[59]

The cicada symbolises rebirth and immortality in Chinese tradition.^[60] In the Chinese essay "Thirty-Six Stratagems", the phrase "to shed the golden cicada skin" (simplified Chinese: 金蝉脱壳; traditional Chinese: 金蟬脫殼; pinyin: jīnchán tuōqiào) is the poetic name for using a decoy (leaving the exuviae) to fool enemies.^[61] In the Chinese classic novelJourney to the West (16th century), the protagonist Priest of Tang was named the Golden Cicada.^[62]

In Japan, the cicada is associated with the summer season.^[63] According to Lafcadio Hearn, the song of Meimuna opalifera, called "tsuku-tsuku boshi", is said to indicate the end of summer, and it is called so because of its particular call.^[64]

In an Ancient Greek myth, Tithonus eventually turns into a cicada after being granted immortality, but not eternal youth, byZeus. The Greeks also used a cicada sitting on a harp as emblematic of music.^[65]

Deep-fried Cryptotympana atrata inShandong cuisine

As food and folk medicine[edit]

Cicadas were eaten in Ancient Greece, and are consumed today in China, both as adults and (more often) as nymphs,^[66] in Malaysia, Burma, Latin America, and central Africa. Female cicadas are prized for being meatier.^[31] Shells of cicadas are employed in traditional Chinese medicines.^[67]

In 2011, cicadas were incorporated into a single batch of ice cream in Columbia, Missouri, at Sparky's. The ice creamery was advised by the public health department against making a second batch, a suggestion with which store owners complied.^[68]

As pests[edit]

Cicadas feed on sap, and are benign to humans; they do not bite or sting in a true sense, but may occasionally mistake a person's arm for a plant limb and attempt to feed.^[69]

Cicadas are not major agricultural pests but in some outbreak years, trees may be overwhelmed by the sheer numbers of females laying their eggs in the shoots. Small trees may wilt and larger trees may lose small branches.^[19] Although in general, the feeding activities of the nymphs do little damage, during the year before an outbreak of periodic cicadas, the large nymphs feed heavily and plant growth may suffer.^[70] Some species have turned from wild grasses to sugar cane, and this has affected the crop adversely, and in a few isolated cases, females have oviposited on food crops such as date palms, grape vines, citrus trees, asparagus and cotton.^[19]

Cicadas sometimes cause damage to amenity shrubs and trees, mainly in the form of scarring left on tree branches where the females laid their eggs. Branches of young trees may die as a result.^[71][72][73]

Genera[edit]

[show]

List of genera

Notes[edit]

1.     Jump up^ The Auchenorrhyncha were formerly part of the obsolete "Homoptera"

2.     Jump up^ See katydid for more etymology.

3.     Jump up^ A further 300 collected Australian species remain to be described.

4.     Jump up^ See for instance the nephrite cicada from the Han dynasty (c. 210 B.C.) in the San Francisco Asian Art Museum.^[53]

References[edit]

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33.  Jump up^ Baker, E.; Price, B. W.; Rycroft, S. D.; Villet, M. H. (2015). "Global Cicada Sound Collection I: Recordings from South Africa and Malawi by B. W. Price & M. H. Villet and harvesting of BioAcoustica data by GBIF". Biodiversity Data Journal. Pensoft. 3 (e5792).doi:10.3897/BDJ.3.e57926.

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Further reading[edit]

·         Clausen, Lucy W. (1954). Insect Fact and Folklore. Macmillan.

·         Egan, Rory B. (1994). "Cicada in Ancient Greece". Retrieved 28 December 2006.

·         Hoppensteadt, Frank C; Keller, Joseph B (1976). "Synchronization of periodical cicada emergences" (PDF).Science. Pitt. 194 (4262): 335–37. Bibcode:1976Sci...194..335H. doi:10.1126/science.987617. PMID 987617.

·         Myers, JG (1929). Insect Singers: A Natural History of the Cicadas. Routledge.

·         Ramel, Gordon (2005). "The Singing Cicadas". Earth life. Retrieved January 31, 2007.

·         Riegel, Garland (November 1994). Cicada in Chinese Folklore. Melsheimer Entomological Series. Bug bios. Retrieved 28 December 2006.

·         Walker, Annette (2000). The Reed Handbook of Common New Zealand Insects. Reed. ISBN 0-7900-0718-5.

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cicadidae.

Wikispecies has information related to: cicadidae

Look up cicada in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

·         Massachusetts Cicadas describes behavior, sightings, photos, how to find guide, videos, periodical and annual cicada species information and distribution maps

·         Magicicada.org Brood mapping project – solicits records and observations from the general public

·         Song recordings and information of cicadas of the United States and Canada

·         Cicadas of Florida, Neocicada hieroglyphica, Tibicen, Diceroprocta andMelampsalta spp. at University of Florida / IFAS Featured Creatures

·         College of Mt Saint Joseph Cicada Information Site; Greater Cincinnati Cicada Information & Teaching Resources

·         DrMetcalf: a resource on cicadas, leafhoppers, planthoppers, spittlebugs, and treehoppers

[show] ·         v ·         t ·         e Extant Hemiptera families
Authority control	·         NDL: 00570641

Categories: 

·         Cicadas

·         Auchenorrhyncha

·         Insects as food

** جیرجیرک حشره‌ای است از تیره راست‌بالان رده آنسیفرا یا شمشیری‌ها (Ensifera) خانواده جیرجیرک‌ها (‎Gryllidae‏) [۱].

راست‌بالان حشراتی هستند که در حالت استراحت بال‌ها به صورت جمع نشده و مماس با سطح پشتی بدن قرار می‌گیرد این فرم بیشتر در حشرات ابتدایی دیده می‌شود نام راست بالان بدین جهت بر آن‌ها گذاشته شده‌است. ملخ‌ها، سوسری‌ها، جیرجیرک‌ها، و آخوندک‌ها (البته امروزه بیشتر این گروه‌ها به صورت جداگانه‌ای طبقه‌بندی می‌شوند) در این راسته قرار دارند. معمولاً شب فعالند. قطعات دهانی جونده هستند. بال‌های جلویی باریک و بال‌های عقبی نازک و تاشده در زیر بال‌های جلویی هستند. دارای دگردیسی ناقص هستند. اغلب همه چیز خوارند و یا زباله‌خوار[۲] می‌باشند و ۲۵ هزار گونه دارد. گونهٔ نر این حشرات برای جلب نظر ماده‌ها، با ایجاد اصطکاک بین بال‌های جلویی و یا بال به پاها و … ایجاد صدا می‌کند.

جیرجیرک آفریقایی

جیرجیرک‌ها خویشاوند ملخ‌ها هستند. آن‌ها می‌توانند به کمک پاهای عقبی بزرگشان به اندازهٔ چند برابر طول بدن خود بپرند. جیرجیرک‌ها معمولاً شب‌ها فعال‌اند. بعضی از آن‌ها مجراهایی حفر می‌کنند و تا زمانی که هوا روشن است در آن استراحت می‌کنند. بیش تر گونه‌های جیرجیرک برگ می‌خورند. اما بعضی از جیرجیرک‌های درختچه‌ای از حشره‌های دیگر تغذیه می‌کنند.[۳]

جیرجیرک‌ها مانند ملخ‌ها، آواز می‌خوانند. آن‌ها برای تولید صدا دندانه‌های شانه مانند یک بال خود را روی ناحیهٔ ضخیم بال دیگر می‌کشند. جلو بدن آن‌ها به صورت تشدیدگر عمل می‌کند و صدا بلندتر می‌شود. بعضی از جیرجیرک‌های گرمسیری به قدری بلند آواز می‌خوانند که می‌توان صدای آن‌ها را از فاصلهٔ ۱/۵ کیلومتری شنید. گوش جیرجیرک‌ها روی زانوهای جلویی آن‌ها قرار دارد.[۳]

وقتی جیرجیرک می‌خواند، یعنی دمای هوا بالای ۲۰ درجه سانتی‌گراد است.

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به عربی جداجد حقیقی:

جداجد حقيقية[عدل]

اضغط هنا للاطلاع على كيفية قراءة التصنيف

فصيلة الجداجد الحقيقية

صورة معبرة عن جداجد حقيقية

جدجد حقلي

التصنيف العلمي

النطاق:   حقيقيات النوى

المملكة:   حيوانات

الشعبة:    مفصليات الأرجل

الشعيبة:   جميع القشريات

الطائفة:   حشرات

الطويئفة: جناحيات

الرتبة:    مستقيمات الأجنحة

الرتيبة:   حاملات السيوف

الفصيلة العليا:        جداجد

الفصيلة:  جداجد حقيقية

الاسم العلمي

Gryllidae

Laicharding ، 1781

تعديل طالع توثيق القالب

الجداجد الحقيقية (الاسم العلمي:Gryllidae) هي فصيلة من الحشرات تتبع رتبة مستقيمات الأجنحة من صف الجناحيات [1][2][3].

محتويات  [أظهر]

أسر[عدل]

مجموعة الجدجداوات الحقيقية:

جدجداوات حقيقية (الاسم العلمي:Gryllinae)

(الاسم العلمي:Gryllomiminae)

(الاسم العلمي:Gryllomorphinae)

(الاسم العلمي:Itarinae)

(الاسم العلمي:Landrevinae)

(الاسم العلمي:Sclerogryllinae)

مجموعة جدجداوات Phalangopsinae:

(الاسم العلمي:Phalangopsinae)

(الاسم العلمي:Cachoplistinae)

(الاسم العلمي:Paragryllinae)

(الاسم العلمي:Rumeinae)

(الاسم العلمي:Phaloriinae)

(الاسم العلمي:Luzarinae)

مجموعة جدجداوات Podoscirtinae:

(الاسم العلمي:Podoscirtinae)

(الاسم العلمي:Euscyrtinae)

(الاسم العلمي:Hapithinae)

جدجداوات الفضلات (الاسم العلمي:Pentacentrinae)

مجموعة جدجداوات دغلية Eneopterinae:

جدجداوات دغلية (الاسم العلمي:Eneopterinae)

(الاسم العلمي:Tafaliscinae)

جنس (الاسم العلمي:Adenophallusia)

جدجداوات (الاسم العلمي:Nemobiinae)

جدجداوات سيفية الذيل (الاسم العلمي:Trigonidiinae)

جدجداوات (الاسم العلمي:Pteroplistinae)

جدجداوات شجرية (الاسم العلمي:جدجداوات شجرية)

الجدجداوية الشجرية

الجدجد الشجري

أجناس[عدل]

(الاسم العلمي:Menonia)

جنس نموذجي[عدل]

الجنس النموذجي لهذه الفصيلة هو:

الجدجد (الاسم العلمي:Gryllus)

أنظر أيضاً[عدل]

جداجد خلدية (الأسم العلمي:حراقات)

جداجد حرشفية (الأسم العلمي:Mogoplistidae)

جداجد نملية (الأسم العلمي:جداجد نملية)

مراجع[عدل]

^ نظام المعلومات التصنيفية المتكامل (بالإنكليزية) ITIS فصيلة الجداجد الحقيقية تاريخ الولوج 01 أغسطس 2013

^ المركز الوطني للمعلومات التقنية الحيوية (بالإنكليزية) NCBI فصيلة الجداجد الحقيقية تاريخ الولوج 01 أغسطس 2013

^ موقع تاكسونوميكون (بالإنكليزية) Taxonomicon فصيلة الجداجد الحقيقية تاريخ الولوج 01 أغسطس 2013

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به عبری:

הַצִּרְצָרִיּים (שם מדעי: Gryllidae; שם תלמודי: צַרְצוּר) הם משפחת חרקים נפוצה.

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به پنجابی:

گاندے ٹڈے کیڑیاں دا اک ٹبر اے۔ ایہناں دا پنڈا کج پدھرا ہوندا اے۔ ایہ رات نوں ٹردے پھردے تے گاندے نیں۔ ایہناں دیاں 900 دے نیڑے ونڈاں نیں۔ ایہ انسان نوں کج نئیں کیندے تے نر ٹڈے ای گاندے نیں۔

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به پشتوچرچرک:

چرچرکان (په لاتين: Gryllidae) د مستقيم وزر لرونکو خوځندکو څخه یو غوښه خوړونکی ژوي دي چې د اېنسیفېرا تر طبقې لاندی راځي. نوموړي ژوي استوانه یی بدن، دایروي سر، درې جورې پښې، یوه جوره مرکب سترگې او دوه انتنونه لري. چرچرکان د نړی په بېلا بېلو سیمو کې په ځنگلونو کې ژوند کوي. د دی خوځندکې تر ټولو لوی ډولونه ۵ ساتیمتره اوږدوالی لري. تر اوسه پورې د چرچرکانو ۹۰۰ ډوله پېژندل شوي دي.

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به کردی سورانی سیسرک:

سیسرک یان مەشکەدڕە (بە ئینگلیسی: Cricket) مێروویەکە لە تیرەی Gryllidae (ڕاستباڵان).

سیسرک شەوانە چالاکە و دەخوێنێ، باڵەکانی پێشەوەی باریک و باڵەکانی دواوەی ناسک و لە ژێر باڵەکانی پێشەوەدا قەد کراوە. هەموو شتێک دەخۆن، لەشیان پانە و شاخیلەیان هەیە، ٢٥ هەزار جۆریان هەیە. سیسرکی نێر بۆ ڕاکێشانی مێ، بە لێخشانی باڵەکانی پێشەوە یان باڵەکان و پێکانی یان... دەنگێکی تایبەت دروست دەکا.

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دەنگی سیسرک

سیسرکی ئەفریقایی

سیسرکەکان خزمی کوللەکانن. ئەوان دەتوانن بە یارمەتی پێی دواوەیان چەن هێندەی درێژی لەشیان باز بدەن. سیسرکەکان شەوانە دەردەکەون، بڕێکیان کون و کەلێن هەڵدەکۆڵن و تا ڕوون بوونەوەی هەوا تێیدا دەمێننەوە. زۆربەی سیسرکەکان گەڵا دەخۆن، بڕێک لە سیسرکەکانیش لە مێروو بژیوی خۆیان دەست دەخەن[٢].

سیسرکەکان وەک کوللەکان دەخوێنن. بۆ ئەم مەبەستە ددانەی شانەئاسای باڵەکانیان لێک دەخشێنن. بەشی پێشەوەی لەشیان وەک ریزۆنانس دەنگەکە بەرزتر دەکا.بڕێ لە سیسرکەکانی گەرمیان هێندە بەرز دەخوێنن کە دەنگیان تا ١،٥ کمی دەبیسرێت. گوێی سیسرکەکان لە سەر ئەژنۆی پێشەوەیانە[٣].

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به آذری چیچیراما:

Cırcırama - (Orthoptera) dəstəsindan bir böcək növü.

به ترکی:

Cırcır böceği, Gryllidae (cırcır böceğigiller) familyasını oluşturan parlak siyah renkli, yuvarlak iri başlı, kısa kanatlı, uzun antenli, böcek türlerinin ortak adı.

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Cricket (insect)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Crickets" redirects here. For the sport, see Cricket. For other uses, see Cricket (disambiguation).

Cricket Temporal range: Triassic–Recent PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N [1]
Juvenile Gryllus campestris
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Arthropoda
Class:	Insecta
Order:	Orthoptera
Suborder:	Ensifera
Superfamily:	Grylloidea
Family:	Gryllidae Laicharting, 1781[2]
Subfamilies
See Taxonomy section
Synonyms[2]
·         Gryllides Laicharting, 1781 ·         Paragryllidae Desutter-Grandcolas, 1987

Crickets (also known as "true crickets"), of the family Gryllidae, are insectsrelated to bush crickets, and, more distantly, to grasshoppers. The Gryllidae have mainly cylindrical bodies, round heads, and long antennae. Behind the head is a smooth, robust pronotum. The abdomen ends in a pair of long cerci (spikes); females have a long, cylindrical ovipositor. The hind legs have enlarged femora (thighs), providing power for jumping. The front wings are adapted as tough, leathery elytra (wing covers), and some crickets chirp by rubbing parts of these together. The hind wings are membranous and folded when not in use for flight; many species, however, are flightless. The largest members of the family are the bull crickets, Brachytrupes, which are up to 5 cm (2 in) long.

More than 900 species of crickets are described; the Gryllidae are distributed all around the world except at latitudes 55° or higher, with the greatest diversity being in the tropics. They occur in varied habitats from grassland, bushes, and forests to marshes, beaches, and caves. Crickets are mainly nocturnal, and are best known for the loud, persistent, chirping song of males trying to attract females, although some species are mute. The singing species have good hearing, via the tympani (eardrums) on the tibiae of the front legs.

Crickets often appear as characters in literature. The Talking Cricket features inCarlo Collodi's 1883 children's book, The Adventures of Pinocchio, and in films based on the book. The eponymous insect is central to Charles Dickens's 1845The Cricket on the Hearth, as is the chirping insect in George Selden's 1960 The Cricket in Times Square. Crickets are celebrated in poems by William Wordsworth, John Keats, and Du Fu. They are kept as pets in countries from China to Europe, sometimes for cricket fighting. Crickets are efficient at converting their food into body mass, making them a candidate for food production. They are used as food in Southeast Asia, where they are sold deep-fried in markets as snacks. They are also used to feed carnivorous pets and zoo animals. In Brazilian folklore, crickets feature as omens of various events.

Contents

  [show] 

Description[edit]

African field cricket Gryllus bimaculatus

Crickets are small to medium-sized insects with mostly cylindrical, somewhat vertically flattened bodies. The head is spherical with long slender antennae arising from cone-shaped scapes (first segments) and just behind these are two large compound eyes. On the forehead are three ocelli (simple eyes). The pronotum (first thoracic segment) is trapezoidal in shape, robust, and well-sclerotinized. It is smooth and has neither dorsal or lateral keels (ridges).^[3]

At the tip of the abdomen is a pair of long cerci (paired appendages on rearmost segment), and in females, the ovipositor is cylindrical, long and narrow, smooth and shiny. The femora (third segments) of the back pair of legs are greatly enlarged for jumping. The tibiae (fourth segments) of the hind legs are armed with a number of moveable spurs, the arrangement of which is characteristic of each species. The tibiae of the front legs bear one or more tympani which are used for the reception of sound.^[3]

The wings lie flat on the body and are very variable in size between species, being reduced in size in some crickets and missing in others. The fore wings are elytra made of tough chitin, acting as a protective shield for the soft parts of the body and in males, bear the stridulatory organs for the production of sound. The hind pair is membranous, folding fan-wise under the fore wings. In many species, the wings are not adapted for flight.^[1]

The largest members of the family are the 5 cm (2 in)-long bull crickets (Brachytrupes) which excavate burrows a metre or more deep. The tree crickets (Oecanthinae) are delicate white or pale green insects with transparent fore wings, while thefield crickets (Gryllinae) are robust brown or black insects.^[1]

Distribution and habitat[edit]

Crickets have a cosmopolitan distribution, being found in all parts of the world with the exception of cold regions atlatitudes higher than about 55° North and South. They have colonised many large and small islands, sometimes flying over the sea to reach these locations, or perhaps conveyed on floating timber or by human activity. The greatest diversityoccurs in tropical locations, such as in Malaysia, where 88 species were heard chirping from a single location near Kuala Lumpur. A greater number than this could have been present because some species are mute.^[1]

Crickets are found in many habitats. Members of several subfamilies are found in the upper tree canopy, in bushes, and among grasses and herbs. They also occur on the ground and in caves, and some are subterranean, excavating shallow or deep burrows. Some make galleries in rotting wood, and certain beach-dwelling species can run and jump over the surface of pools.^[1]

Biology[edit]

Defence[edit]

Crickets are relatively defenceless, soft-bodied insects. Most species are nocturnal and spend the day hidden in cracks, under bark, inside curling leaves, under stones or fallen logs, in leaf litter, or in the cracks in the ground that develop in dry weather. Some excavate their own shallow holes in rotting wood or underground and fold in their antennae to conceal their presence. Some of these burrows are temporary shelters, used for a single day, but others serve as more permanent residences and places for mating and laying eggs. Crickets burrow by loosening the soil with the mandibles and then carrying it with the limbs, flicking it backwards with the hind legs or pushing it with the head.^[4]

Other defensive strategies are the use of camouflage, fleeing, and aggression. Some species have adopted colourings, shapes, and patterns that make it difficult for predators that hunt by sight to detect them. They tend to be dull shades of brown, grey, and green that blend into their background, and desert species tend to be pale. Some species can fly, but the mode of flight tends to be clumsy, so the most usual response to danger is to scuttle away to find a hiding place.^[4]

Chirping[edit]

A male Gryllus cricket chirping: Its head faces its burrow; the leathery fore wings (tegmina) are raised (clear of the more delicate hind wings) and are being scraped against each other (stridulation) to produce the song. The burrow acts as a resonator, amplifying the sound.

Most male crickets make a loud chirping sound by stridulation. The stridulatory organ is located on the tegmen, or fore wing, which is leathery in texture. A large vein runs along the centre of each tegmen, with comb-like serrations on its edge forming a file-like structure, and at the rear edge of the tegmen is a scraper. The tegmina are held at an angle to the body and rhythmically raised and lowered which causes the scraper on one wing to rasp on the file on the other. The central part of the tegmen contains the "harp", an area of thick, sclerotinized membrane which resonates and amplifies the volume of sound, as does the pocket of air between the tegmina and the body wall. Most female crickets lack the necessary adaptations to stridulate, so make no sound.^[5]

Several types of cricket songs are in the repertoire of some species. The calling song attracts females and repels other males, and is fairly loud. The courting song is used when a female cricket is near and encourages her to mate with the caller. A triumphal song is produced for a brief period after a successful mating, and may reinforce the mating bond to encourage the female to lay some eggs rather than find another male.^[6] An aggressive song is triggered by contact chemoreceptors on the antennae that detect the presence of another male cricket.^[7]

Crickets chirp at different rates depending on their species and the temperature of their environment. Most species chirp at higher rates the higher the temperature is (about 62 chirps a minute at 13 °C in one common species; each species has its own rate). The relationship between temperature and the rate of chirping is known as Dolbear's law. According to this law, counting the number of chirps produced in 14 seconds by the snowy tree cricket, common in the United States, and adding 40 will approximate the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.^[6]

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The calling song of a field cricket

In 1975, Dr. William H. Cade discovered that the parasitic tachinid fly Ormia ochracea is attracted to the song of the cricket, and uses it to locate the male to deposit her larvae on him. It was the first known example of a natural enemy that locates its host or prey using the mating signal.^[8] Since then, many species of crickets have been found to be carrying the same parasitic fly, or related species. In response to this selective pressure, a mutation leaving males unable to chirp was observed amongst a population of field crickets on the Hawaiian island ofKauai, enabling these crickets to elude their parasitoid predators.^[9]

Flight[edit]

Some species, such as the ground crickets (Nemobiinae), are wingless; others have small fore wings and no hind wings (Copholandrevus), others lack hind wings and have shortened fore wings in females only, while others are macropterous, with the hind wings longer than the fore wings. In Teleogryllus, the proportion of macropterous individuals varies from very low to 100%. Probably, most species with hind wings longer than fore wings engage in flight.^[3]

Some species, such as Gryllus assimilis, take off, fly, and land efficiently and well, while other species are clumsy fliers.^[1]In some species, the hind wings are shed, leaving wing stumps, usually after dispersal of the insect by flight. In other species, they may be pulled off and consumed by the cricket itself or by another individual, probably providing a nutritional boost.^[10]

Gryllus firmus exhibits wing polymorphism; some individuals have fully functional, long hind wings and others have short wings and cannot fly. The short-winged females have smaller flight muscles, greater ovarian development, and produce more eggs, so the polymorphism adapts the cricket for either dispersal or reproduction. In some long-winged individuals, the flight muscles deteriorate during adulthood and the insect's reproductive capabilities improve.^[11]

Diet[edit]

Two adult domestic crickets, Acheta domestica, feeding on carrot

Captive crickets are omnivorous; when deprived of their natural diet, they accept a wide range of organic foodstuffs. Some species are completely herbivorous, feeding on flowers, fruit, and leaves, with ground-based species consuming seedlings, grasses, pieces of leaf, and the shoots of young plants. Others are more predatory and include in their diet invertebrate eggs, larvae, pupae, moulting insects, scale insects, and aphids.^[12] Many are scavengers and consume various organic remains, decaying plants, seedlings, and fungi.^[13] In captivity, many species have been successfully reared on a diet of ground, commercial dry dog food, supplemented with lettuce and aphids.^[12]

Crickets have relatively powerful jaws, and several species have been known to bite humans.^[14]

Reproduction and lifecycle[edit]

Male crickets establish their dominance over each other by aggression. They start by lashing each other with their antennae and flaring their mandibles. Unless one retreats at this stage, they resort to grappling, at the same time each emitting calls that are quite unlike those uttered in other circumstances. When one achieves dominance, it sings loudly, while the loser remains silent.^[15]

Females are generally attracted to males by their calls, though in nonstridulatory species, some other mechanism must be involved. After the pair has made antennal contact, a courtship period may occur during which the character of the call changes. The female mounts the male and a single spermatophore is transferred to the external genitalia of the female. Sperm flows from this into the female's oviduct over a period of a few minutes or up to an hour, depending on species. After copulation, the female may remove or eat the spermatophore; males may attempt to prevent this with various ritualised behaviours. The female may mate on several occasions with different males.^[16]

Various instars of Gryllus assimilis, by Robert Evans Snodgrass, 1930

Most crickets lay their eggs in the soil or inside the stems of plants, and to do this, female crickets have a long, needle-like or sabre-like egg-laying organ called anovipositor. Some ground-dwelling species have dispensed with this, either depositing their eggs in an underground chamber or pushing them into the wall of a burrow.^[1] The short-tailed cricket (Anurogryllus) excavates a burrow with chambers and a defecating area, lays its eggs in a pile on a chamber floor, and after the eggs have hatched, feeds the juveniles for about a month.^[17]

Crickets are hemimetabolic insects, whose lifecycle consists of an egg stage, a larval or nymph stage that increasingly resembles the adult form as the nymph grows, and an adult stage. The egg hatches into a nymph about the size of a fruit fly. This passes through about 10 larval stages, and with each successive moult, it become more like an adult. After the final moult, the genitalia and wings are fully developed, but a period of maturation is needed before the cricket is ready to breed.^[18]

The species Gryllus bimaculatus exhibits the reproductive pattern of polyandry. This sexual selective pattern increases the overall fitness of the species and promotes genetic variation. The females select and mate with multiple viable sperm donors and exhibit a distinct preference to novel mates.

Inbreeding avoidance[edit]

Female Teleogryllus oceanicus crickets from natural populations mate polyandrously and store sperm from multiple males.^[19] Female crickets exert a postcopulatory fertilization bias in favour of unrelated males to avoid the genetic consequences of inbreeding. Fertilization bias depends on the control of sperm transport to the sperm storage organs. The inhibition of sperm storage by female crickets can act as a form of cryptic female choice to avoid the severe negative effects of inbreeding.^[20]

In controlled-breeding experiments with the cricket Gryllus firmus, seven inbred lines were tested, and during 14 generations of brother–sister matings, nymphal weight and early fecundity declined substantially.^[21] This observed inbreeding depression appeared to be due to an increased frequency of homozygous combinations of deleteriousrecessive alleles generated by the inbreeding (thereby decreasing fitness).^[21] These results support the general idea that the principal benefit of outcrossing is the masking of deleterious recessive alleles by wild-type alleles.^[22]

Predators, parasites, and pathogens[edit]

Crickets have many natural enemies and are subject to various pathogens and parasites. They are eaten by large numbers of vertebrate and invertebrate predators and their hard parts are often found when the contents of animal's guts are examined.^[4] Mediterranean house geckos (Hemidactylus turcicus) have learned that although a calling decorated cricket (Gryllodes supplicans) may be safely positioned in an out-of-reach burrow, female crickets attracted to the call can be intercepted and eaten.^[15]

Crickets are reared as food for pets and zoo animals like this baboon spider, Pterinochilus murinus, emerging from its den to feed.

The entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae attacks and kills crickets and has been used as the basis of control in pest populations.^[4] The insects are also affected by the cricket paralysis virus, which has caused high levels of fatalities in cricket-rearing facilities.^[23] Other fatal diseases that have been identified in mass-rearing establishments include Rickettsia and three further viruses. The diseases may spread more rapidly if the crickets becomecannibalistic and eat the corpses.^[4]

Red parasitic mites sometimes attach themselves to the dorsal region of crickets and may greatly affect them.^[4] The horsehair worm Paragordius varius is an internal parasite and can control the behaviour of its cricket host and cause it to enter water, where the parasite continues its lifecycle and the cricket likely drowns.^[24] The larvae of the sarcophagid fly Sarcophaga kellyi develop inside the body cavity of field crickets.^[25] Female parasitic wasps of Rhopalosoma lay their eggs on crickets, and their developing larvae gradually devour their hosts. Other wasps in the family Scelionidae are egg parasitoids, seeking out batches of eggs laid by crickets in plant tissues in which to insert their eggs.^[4]

The fly Ormia ochracea has very acute hearing and targets calling male crickets. It locates its prey by ear and then lays its eggs nearby. The developing larvae burrow inside any crickets with which they come in contact and in the course of a week or so, devour what remains of the host before pupating.^[26] In Florida, the parasitic flies were only present in the autumn, and at that time of year, the males sang less but for longer periods. A trade-off exists for the male between attracting females and being parasitized.^[27]

Phylogeny and taxonomy[edit]

Fossil cricket from the Cretaceousof Brazil

The phylogenetic relationships of the Gryllidae, summarized by Darryl Gwynne in 1995 from his own work (using mainly anatomical characteristics) and that of earlier authors,^[a] are shown in the following cladogram, with the Orthoptera divided into two main groups, Ensifera (crickets sensu lato) and Caelifera(grasshoppers). Fossil Ensifera are found from the late Carboniferous period (300 Mya) onwards,^[28][29] and the true crickets, Gryllidae, from the Triassic period (250 to 200 Mya).^[1]

Cladogram after Gwynne, 1995:^[28]

Orthoptera	Ensifera (longhorned crickets) Grylloidea Gryllidae (true crickets) mole, scaly and ant crickets Schizodactylidae (splay-footed crickets) Tettigonioidea (katydids, bush crickets, weta) Caelifera (shorthorned grasshoppers)

A phylogenetic study by Jost & Shaw in 2006 using sequences from 18S, 28S, and 16S rRNA supported the monophyly of Ensifera. Most ensiferan families were also found to be monophyletic, and the superfamily Gryllacridoidea was found to include Stenopelmatidae, Anostostomatidae, Gryllacrididae and Lezina. Schizodactylidae and Grylloidea were shown to be sister taxa, and Rhaphidophoridae and Tettigoniidae were found to be more closely related to Grylloidea than had previously been thought. The authors stated that "a high degree of conflict exists between the molecular and morphological data, possibly indicating that much homoplasy is present in Ensifera, particularly in acoustic structures." They considered that tegmen stridulation and tibial tympanae are ancestral to Ensifera and have been lost on multiple occasions, especially within the Gryllidae.^[30]

More than 900 species of Gryllidae (true crickets) are known.^[31][b] The family is divided into these subfamily groups, subfamilies, and extinct genera (not placed within the subfamilies):^[32]

·         Subfamily group Gryllinae Laicharting, 1781 – common or field crickets ·         Gryllinae Laicharting, 1781 ·         Gryllomiminae Gorochov, 1986 ·         Gryllomorphinae Saussure, 1877 ·         Gryllospeculinae † Gorochov, 1985 ·         Itarinae Shiraki, 1930 ·         Landrevinae Gorochov, 1982 ·         Sclerogryllinae Gorochov, 1985 ·         Subfamily group Podoscirtinae ·         Euscyrtinae Gorochov, 1985 ·         Hapithinae Gorochov, 1986 ·         Pentacentrinae Saussure, 1878 ·         Podoscirtinae Saussure, 1878 – anomalous crickets ·         Subfamily group Phalangopsinae ·         Cachoplistinae Saussure, 1877 ·         Luzarinae Hebard, 1928 ·         Paragryllinae Desutter-Grandcolas, 1987 ·         Phalangopsinae Blanchard, 1845 – spider crickets ·         Phaloriinae Gorochov, 1985 ·         Pteroplistinae Chopard, 1936

·         Subfamily Eneopterinae Saussure, 1893 – bush crickets (American usage), not to be confused with theTettigoniidae (katydids or bush crickets) ·         Subfamily Nemobiinae Saussure, 1877 – ground crickets ·         Subfamily Oecanthinae Blanchard, 1845 – tree crickets ·         Subfamily Trigonidiinae Saussure, 1874 – sword-tail crickets ·         Genus Gryllidium † Westwood, 1854 ·         Genus Liaonemobius † Ren, 1998 ·         Genus Lithogryllites † Cockerell, 1908 ·         Genus Menonia † George, 1936 ·         Genus Nanaripegryllus † Martins-Neto, 2002

In human culture[edit]

Il Grillo Parlante (TheTalking Cricket) illustrated byEnrico Mazzanti for Carlo Collodi's 1883 children's book "Le avventure di Pinocchio" (The Adventures of Pinocchio)

Folklore and myth[edit]

The folklore and mythology surrounding crickets is extensive.^[33] The singing of crickets in the folklore of Brazil and elsewhere is sometimes taken to be a sign of impending rain, or of a financial windfall. In Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca's chronicles of the Spanish conquest of the Americas, the sudden chirping of a cricket heralded the sighting of land for his crew, just as their water supply had run out.^[34] In Caraguatatuba, Brazil, a black cricket in a room is said to portend illness; a gray one, money; and a green one, hope.^[34]In Alagoas state, northeast Brazil, a cricket announces death, thus it is killed if it chirps in a house.^[35] In Barbados, a loud cricket means money is coming in; hence, a cricket must not be killed or evicted if it chirps inside a house. However, another type of cricket that is less noisy forebodes illness or death.^[36]

Illustration for Charles Dickens's 1883 Cricket on the Hearth by Fred Barnard

In literature[edit]

Crickets feature as major characters in novels and children's books. Charles Dickens's 1845 novella The Cricket on the Hearth, divided into sections called "Chirps", tells the story of a cricket which chirps on the hearth and acts as a guardian angel to a family.^[37] Carlo Collodi's 1883 children's book "Le avventure di Pinocchio" (The Adventures of Pinocchio) featured "Il Grillo Parlante" (The Talking Cricket) as one of its characters.^[38] George Selden's 1960 children's bookThe Cricket in Times Square tells the story of Chester the cricket from Connecticut who joins a family and their other animals, and is taken to see Times Square in New York.^[39]The story, which won the Newbery Honor,^[40] came to Selden on hearing a real cricket chirp in Times Square.^[41]

The French entomologist Jean-Henri Fabre's popular Souvenirs Entomoloqiques devotes a whole chapter to the cricket, discussing its construction of a burrow and its song-making. The account is mainly of the field cricket, but also mentions the Italian cricket.^[42]

Crickets have from time to time appeared in poetry. William Wordsworth's 1805 poem The Cottager to Her Infant includes the couplet "The kitten sleeps upon the hearth, The crickets long have ceased their mirth".^[43] John Keats's 1819 poemOde to Autumn includes the lines "Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft / The redbreast whistles from a garden-croft".^[44] The Chinese Tang dynasty poet Du Fu (712–770) wrote a poem that in the translation by J. P. Seaton begins "House cricket... Trifling thing. And yet how his mournful song moves us. Out in the grass his cry was a tremble, But now, he trills beneath our bed, to share his sorrow."^[45]

As pets and fighting animals[edit]

Meiji period cricket holder in the form of a norimono palanquin, c. 1850

Crickets are kept as pets and are considered good luck in some countries; inChina, they are sometimes kept in cages or in hollowed-out gourds specially created in novel shapes.^[46] The practice was common in Japan for thousands of years; it peaked in the 19th century, though crickets are still sold at pet shops.^[47]It is also common to have them as caged pets in some European countries, particularly in the Iberian Peninsula. Cricket fighting is a traditional Chinese pastime that dates back to the Tang dynasty (618–907). Originally an indulgence of emperors, cricket fighting later became popular among commoners.^[48] The dominance and fighting ability of males does not depend on strength alone; it has been found that they become more aggressive after certain pre-fight experiences such as isolation, or when defending a refuge. Crickets forced to fly for a short while will afterwards fight for two to three times longer than they otherwise would.^[49]

As food[edit]

Deep-fried house crickets (Acheta domesticus) at a market in Thailand

In the southern part of Asia including Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam, crickets are commonly eaten as a snack, prepared by deep frying the soaked and cleaned insects.^[50] In Thailand, there are 20,000 farmers rearing crickets, with an estimated production of 7,500 tons per year^[51] and United Nation's FAO has implemented a project in Laos to improve cricket farming and consequently food security.^[52]

The food conversion efficiency of house crickets (Acheta domesticus) is 1.7, some five times higher than that for beef cattle, and if their fecundity is taken into account, 15 to 20 times higher.^[53][54]

More and more small companies in western countries are processing crickets to convert them in powder (often referred to as flour) to produce processed food products like protein bars, cricket pasta, and cookies. This innovation is part of a general diffusion of edible insects as food.^{[55][56][57][58]} Crickets are reared on a large scale as food for carnivorous zoo and laboratory animals;^[4][59] they may be "gut loaded" with additional minerals, such as calcium, to provide a balanced diet for predators such as tree frogs (Hylidae).^[60]

In popular culture[edit]

Cricket characters feature in the Walt Disney animated movies Pinocchio (1940), where Jiminy Cricket becomes the title character's conscience, and in Mulan (1998), where Cri-kee is carried in a cage as a symbol of luck, in the Asian manner.The Crickets was the name of Buddy Holly's rock and roll band;^[61] Holly's home town baseball team in the 1990s was called the Lubbock Crickets.^[62] Cricket is the name of a US children's literary magazine founded in 1973; it uses a cast of insect characters.^[63] The sound of crickets is often used in media to emphasize silence, often for comic effect after an awkward joke, in a similar manner to tumbleweed.^[64]

Notes[edit]

1.     Jump up^ Gwynne cites Ander 1939, Zeuner 1939, Judd 1947, Key 1970, Ragge 1977 and Rentz 1991 as supporting the two-part scheme (Ensifera, Caelifera) in his 1995 paper.^[28]

2.     Jump up^ Some groups in the Ensifera may be called crickets sensu lato, including the Rhaphidophoridae – cave or camel crickets;Stenopelmatidae – Jerusalem or sand crickets; Mogoplistidae – scaly crickets; Gryllotalpidae – mole crickets; Anabrus – mormon crickets; Myrmecophilidae – ant crickets; and Tettigoniidae – katydids or bush crickets.

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Further reading[edit]

·         Gorochov A.V.; Mostovski M.B. (2008). "Apterous crickets of the tribe Gryllini from South Africa and Namibia (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)". African Invertebrates. 49 (1): 109–121. doi:10.5733/afin.049.0103.

·         Lisa Gail Ryan, Berthold Laufer, Lafcadio Hearn (1996). Insect musicians & cricket champions: a cultural history of singing insects in China and Japan. China Books. ISBN 0-8351-2576-9.

·         Franz Huber, Thomas Edwin Moore, Werner Loher (1989). Cricket behavior and neurobiology. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2272-8.

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gryllidae.

Wikispecies has information related to: Gryllidae

·         house cricket

·         tropical house cricket

·         field crickets, Gryllus spp.

[show] ·         v ·         t ·         e Extant Orthoptera families
Taxon Identifiers	·         EoL: 996 ·         GBIF: 5925 ·         ITIS: 102281 ·         NCBI: 6995 ·         Fossilworks: 56642 ·         Fauna Europaea: 11894

Authority control

·         NDL: 00566638

Categories: 

·         Crickets

·         Ensifera

·         Extant Triassic first appearances

·         Insect rearing