هاترا[۱][۲][۳][۴] یا حضر (به عربی: الحضر) یا حتره یا حترا[۵] شهری باستانی است که در استان نینوا، عراق قرار دارد. هترا در ۲۹۰ کیلومتری شمال
شهر بغداد و ۱۱۰ کیلومتری جنوب
غرب موصل قرار دارد. اما در
دوران باستان این شهر در فاصله ۵۰ کیلومتری شمال غرب پایتخت باستانی آشوریان
یعنی آشور واقع بود.
شهر هترا دارای معماری خاصی است که می‌توان
سه نوع تمدن ایرانی، یونانی و رومی را در آن
دید. حضراء یکی از تمدن‌های نیمه عربی و اشکانی پیش از اسلام در
عراق است که توسط داعش نابود شد.
شهر حضر گویا تا زمان شاپور یکم ساسانی
یا اندکی پس از او نقشی در تاریخ بازی کرده‌است.
واژه Atra و Atrai در یونانی، و Hatra در لاتینی از کلمه‌ی عربی
"""حضراء """گرفته شده و حطرا نیز در کتیبه‌های
مکشوف در خرابه‌های حضر است. نام رسمی شهر بِیت اِلاهاء (به معنی
«خانهٔ خدا») و حترا دشَمَش (به معنی «هترای شمش») (ḥtrʾ d-šmš 𐣧𐣨𐣣𐣠 𐣣𐣴𐣬𐣴) که بر روی یک سکه مکشوفه حک شده بوده است.[۶][۷]
شهر حضر را می‌توان یک شهر کاملاً عرب دانست. فرهنگ و زبان و ادیان آرامی و عربی
در آنجا بیشتر از عوامل دیگر رواج داشت. با این حال هرتسفلد و نُلدِکه معتقد
هستند که اکثر ساکنان شهر را قبایل عرب تشکیل می‌دادند و این قبایل در سده نخست
پیش از میلاد از نزاع میان پارت‌ها و یونانی‌ها استفاده کرده شهر را گسترش و قدرت
بخشیدند. مهاجران گوناگونی که در آن ساکن بودند غالباً به بازرگانی می‌پرداختند.
دیدگاه این دو خاورشناس اینک توسط کتیبه‌هایی که در خرابه شهر به زبان آرامی کشف
شده، تأیید می‌گردد.
ساختمان‌های این شهر غالباً از سنگ است و اسلوب معماری آن مخلوطی از اسلوب
معماری ایرانی، آشوری و عربی و یونانی است که اهل حضر به وجود آورده‌اند. القاب و
نام‌های امیران حضر بیشتر آرامی و عربی است. حضر در زمان اشکانیان که آن را تحت
حمایت خود داشتند و حکومت آن را تقویت می‌کردند، چندین بار مورد حمله رومیان قرار
گرفت. تراژان در سال ۱۱۶ م.
آنجا را گرفت اما در پایان همان سال که شهر را مجدداً محاصره کرد بدون گرفتن نتیجه‌ای
عازم روم شد. سوروس که در
سال ۱۹۵ م اشکانیان را شکست داد، اعراب حضر را نیز قلع و قمع کرد. اما هم او در حملات و
محاصره‌هایی که در سال‌های ۲۰۰ م؛ و ۲۰۱ م. علیه شهر صورت داد موفقیتی به دست
نیاورد.
برخلاف پارت‌ها که دولت‌های کوچک را در داخل و در مرزهای خود تحت حمایت خود
گرفته و تقویت می‌کردند، ساسانیان به ادامه
حیات این دولت‌ها یا نفوذ دولت‌های بیگانه در درون ایران گرایشی نداشتند. به همین
جهت بود که تاجران تدمری و نبطی از شهرهای
اطراف فرات بیرون رانده شدند و
حکومت کوچک کرخ و حضر از میان رفتند.
تخریب توسط داعش[ویرایش]
در پی حمله داعش به شمال عراق و تصرف
استان نینوا در سال ۲۰۱۴، داعش در
شانزدهم اسفند ۱۳۹۳ (۷ مارس ۲۰۱۵) به محوطه باستانی هترا
یورش برد. این اقدام داعش با خشم باستان شناسان مواجه
شد.[۸]
منابع[ویرایش]
1.
↑ مبانی
تاریخ ساسانی، شیپمان کلاوس
2.
↑ ایران در
زمان ساسانیان کریستین سن آرتور، ص ۲۲۸
3.
↑ تاریخ
ایران پژوهش دانشگاه کمبریج جلد سوم قست اول
4.
↑ شاهنشاهی
ساسانی، دریایی تورج
5.
↑ پیگولوسکایا
نینا شهرهای ایران در روزگار پارتی و ساسانی ترجمه عنایت الله رضا
6.
↑ https://www.britannica.com/place/Hatra#ref287908
7.
↑ Schmitt, Rüdiger. "HATRA". iranicaonline.org. Encyclopaedia
Iranica. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
8.
↑ داعش تخریب بقایای شهر باستانی هترا را آغاز کرد بی‌بی‌سی فارسی
مشارکت‌کنندگان ویکی‌پدیا. «Hatra». در دانشنامهٔ ویکی‌پدیای
انگلیسی، بازبینی‌شده در ۱۳ اگوست ۲۰۱۱.
·
«الحَضْر
(هَترا)» در دانشنامهٔ جهان
اسلام
·
آذرنوش، آذرتاش، راه‌های نفوذ فارسی در فرهنگ و زبان عرب جاهلی،
چاپ سوم. تهران: انتشارات توس، ۱۳۸۸. شابک ۳-۴۳۶-۳۱۵-۹۶۴-۹۷۸
·
هترا
·
این صفحه آخرین‌بار
در ۱۰ دسامبر ۲۰۲۳ ساعت ۱۴:۳۲ ویرایش شده‌است.
Hatra (/ˈhæ.trə/; Arabic: الحضر; Syriac: ܚܛܪܐ) was an
ancient city in Upper
Mesopotamia located in present-day eastern Nineveh Governorate in
northern Iraq.
The ruins of the city lie 290 km (180 mi) northwest of Baghdad and
110 km (68 mi) southwest of Mosul.
It is considered the richest archaeological site from the Parthian
Empire known to date.[1]
Hatra
was a strongly fortified caravan
city and capital of the small Arab Kingdom
of Hatra, located between the Roman and Parthian/Sasanian Empires. Hatra flourished in the 2nd
century, and was destroyed and
deserted in the 3rd century. Its impressive ruins were discovered in the 19th
century.[2]
Name[edit]
Hatra
is known as al-Ḥaḍr (الحضر) in Arabic.
It is recorded as 𐣧𐣨𐣣𐣠 (ḥṭrʾ, vocalized
as: Ḥaṭrāʾ) in Hatran Aramaic inscriptions, probably
meaning "enclosure, hedge, fence". In Syriac, it is usually recorded in the plural
form Ḥaṭrē. In Roman works, it is recorded as Greek Átra and
Latin Hatra and Hatris.[2]
The
city was officially called Beit ʾElāhāʾ 𐣡𐣩𐣵 𐣠𐣫𐣤𐣠
"House of God", in Hatran Aramaic inscriptions[3] and
once recorded as "Enclosure of Shamash"
(ḥtrʾ d-šmš 𐣧𐣨𐣣𐣠 𐣣𐣴𐣬𐣴)
on a coin.[2]
History[edit]
There
is no archeological information on the city before the Parthian period but
settlement in the area likely dates back to at least the Seleucid period.[2] Hatra
flourished under the Parthians,
during the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, as a religious and trading center.[4] Later
on, the city became the capital of possibly the first Arab Kingdom
in the chain of Arab cities running from Hatra, in the northeast, via Palmyra, Baalbek and Petra,
in the southwest. The region controlled from Hatra was the Kingdom
of Hatra, a semi-autonomous buffer kingdom on the western
limits of the Parthian Empire, governed by Arabian princes.
bronze
coin struck in Hatra circa 117–138 AD, obverse depicts radiate bust of Shamash
Plan
of Hatra
Hatra
became an important fortified frontier city and played an important role in
the Second Parthian War,
withstanding repeated attacks by the Roman
Empire. During the 2nd century CE the city repulsed
sieges by both Trajan (116/117)
and Septimius Severus (198/199).[5] Hatra's
forces defeated the ascendant Sassanid
Persians in 238 at the battle of Shahrazoor, but fell shortly after in 241 to
the army of Sassanid king Shapur I and was
destroyed.[5] The
traditional stories of the fall
of Hatra tell of al-Nadirah,
daughter of the King of Araba, who betrayed the city into the hands of Shapur
as she fell in love with him. The story tells of how Shapur killed the king and
married al-Nadirah, but later had her killed also after realizing her
ingratitude towards her father.[4][6]
Hatra
was the best preserved and most informative example of a Parthian city.
Its plan was circular,[7] and
was encircled by inner and outer walls nearly 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) in
diameter[8] and
supported by more than 160 towers. A temenos (τέμενος) surrounded the
principal sacred buildings in the city's centre. The temples covered some 1.2
hectares and were dominated by the Great Temple, an enormous structure
with vaults and columns that
once rose to 30 metres. The city was famed for its fusion of Greek, Mesopotamian, Canaanite,
Aramean and Arabian pantheons,
known in Aramaic as Beiṯ
Ĕlāhā ("House of God"). The city had temples to Nergal (Assyrian-Babylonian and Akkadian), Hermes (Greek), Atargatis (Syro-Aramaean), Allat, Shamiyyah (Arabian),
and Shamash (the Mesopotamian sun
god).[4] Other
deities mentioned in the Hatran Aramaic inscriptions were the Aramaean Ba'al Shamayn, and the female deity known
as Ashurbel,
which was perhaps the assimilation of the two deities the Assyrian god Ashur and the Babylonian Bel—despite their being individually
masculine.
List of rulers[edit]
In
inscriptions found at Hatra, several rulers are mentioned. Other rulers are
sporadically mentioned by classical authors. The earlier rulers are
titled mrjʾ (māryā, "lord") and the later
ones mlkʾ d-ʿrb ("king of the Arabs"; malkā,
"king").[2]
|
Name |
Title |
Date |
Portrait |
Note |
|
|
1 |
Worod |
mry´ |
|||
|
2 |
Ma’nu |
mry´ |
|||
|
3 |
Elkud |
mry´ |
155/156 |
||
|
4 |
mry´ |
128/29 – 137/38 AD |
|||
|
5 |
mry´ |
128/29 – 176/77 |
|||
|
6 |
Wolgash I |
mry´ and mlk |
The two brothers may have been
co-rulers. |
||
|
7 |
mry´ and mlk |
176/177 |
|
||
|
8 |
mlk |
192/93 – 201/202 |
|
Supported the Roman emperor Pescennius Niger |
|
|
9 |
mlk – King |
207/08 – 229/230 |
|
Became a vassal of the Romans under Gordian III during Roman–Persian Wars |
|
Art of Hatra[edit]
According
to John M. Rosenfield,
the statuary of Hatra belong to the Parthian
cultural sphere, with numerous similarities
in terms of clothing, decorative elements or posture, which tend to be massive
and frontal, with feet often splayed.[9] The
architecture of Hatra itself is generally seen as an example of Parthian
architecture.[9] Similarities
can be seen with the Art of the Kushans as
well, due either to direct cultural exchanges between the area of Mesopotamia and
the Kushan Empire at
that time, or from a common Parthian artistic background leading to similar
types of representation.[9]
·
Headless
statue of a nobleman features intricate detail.
·
.jpg)
Military commander from the city of Hatra. Iraq
Museum, Baghdad.
·
Limestone statue of a military commander in his
uniform holding a statue of a deity.
·
Relief of the god Nergal from Hatra.
·
Hatra relief devotee.
Modern Hatra[edit]
Archaeological site of Hatra
before destruction, 0:59, UNESCO video
Hatra
was used as the setting for the opening scene in the 1973 film The Exorcist,[10] and
since 1985 has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[11]
The
site was first surveyed by Walter Andrae of the German excavation team working
in Assur from 1906 to 1911. But systematic excavations have been undertaken
only from 1951 by Iraqi archeologists. From the 1980s, the Italian
Archaeological Expedition,[12] directed
by R. Ricciardi Venco (University of Turin),
made major discoveries at Hatra. The excavations were focused on an important
house ("Building A"[13]),
located close to the Temenos, and on deep soundings in the Temenos central
area.[14] Now
the Expedition is active in different projects regarding the preservation and
development of the archaeological site.[15] In
1990, a Polish expedition of the Polish
Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology University of Warsaw recorded
and studied the city's defense walls.[16]
In
2004, The Daily
Telegraph stated "Hatra's finely preserved columns
and statues make it one of the most impressive of Iraq's archaeological
sites"[17]
Restoration
by Saddam Hussein[edit]
Saddam
Hussein saw the site's Mesopotamian history as
reflecting glory on himself, and sought to restore the site, and others
in Ninevah, Nimrud, Ashur and Babylon,
as a symbol of Arab achievement,[18] spending
more than US$80 million in the first phase of restoration of Babylon.
Saddam Hussein demanded that new bricks in the restoration use his name (in imitation
of Nebuchadnezzar)
and parts of one restored Hatra temple have Saddam's name.[19]
Destruction
by ISIL[edit]
Actions
by the Islamic State of
Iraq and the Levant, which occupied the area in
mid-2014, were a major threat to Hatra. In early 2015 they announced
their intention
to destroy many artifacts, claiming that such
"graven images" were un-Islamic, encouraged shirk (or
polytheism), and could not be permitted to exist, despite the preservation of
the site for 1,400 years by various Islamic regimes. ISIL militants pledged to
destroy the remaining artifacts. Shortly thereafter, they released a video
showing the destruction of some artifacts from Hatra.[20][21] After
the bulldozing of Nimrud on March 5, 2015, "Hatra of course will be
next" said Abdulamir
Hamdani, an Iraqi archaeologist from Stony Brook
University.[22] On
March 7, Kurdish and Iraqi official sources reported ISIS had begun the
demolishing the ruins of Hatra.[23][24] A
video released by ISIL during the next month showed the destruction of the
monuments.[25]
UNESCO
and ISESCO issued
a joint statement saying "With this latest act of barbarism against Hatra,
(the IS group) shows the contempt in which it holds the history and heritage of
Arab people."[26]
The
pro-Iraqi government Popular
Mobilization Forces captured the city on 26
April 2017.[27] A
spokeswoman for the militias stated that ISIL had destroyed the sculptures and
engraved images of the site, but its walls and towers were still standing
though contained holes and scratches received from ISIL bullets. PMF units also
stated that the group had mined the site's eastern gates, thus temporarily
preventing any assessment of damage by archaeologists.[28] It
was reported on 1 May that the site had suffered less damage than feared
earlier. A journalist of EFE had
earlier reported finding many destroyed statues, burnt buildings as well as
signs of looting. Layla Salih, head of
antiquities for Nineveh Governorate, stated that most of the buildings were
intact and the destruction didn't compare with that of other archaeological
sites of Iraq. A PMF commander also stated that the damage was relatively
minor.[29]
Gallery[edit]
·
Remains of
several temples and ancient walls (2004)
·
Elevated view of
the site in 2007
·
Temple facade
(May 2006)
·
Southern
exposure of the temple (May 2006)
·
July 2008
·
Marn Temple
(November 2008)
·
November 2008
·
American
soldiers at the site, September 2010
·
American
soldiers at the site, September 2010
·
Elevated view of
the temple (September 2014)
·
Detail of a
temple, showing Hellenistic, Mesopotamian and Iranian architecture
·
Decorated arch
with faces
·
View of iwans
·
Closeup of an
iwan
·
Facade of Temple
·
Arch of the
temple
·
Protruded head
on a wall
·
Statue of the
Goddess Shahiro
·
From
left to right, an unidentified ruler, Hermes, a female deity, and Sanatruq
I.From Hatra. Erbil Civilization Museum
·
Door lintel from
Hatra. 2nd-3rd century AD. Sulaymaniyah Museum,
Iraqi Kurdistan
Climate[edit]
Hatra
has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen
climate classification BSh). Most rain falls in the
winter. The average annual temperature in Hatra is 20.7 °C (69.3 °F).
About 257 mm (10.12 in) of precipitation falls annually.
|
hideClimate data for
Hatra (Al Hadar) |
|||||||||||||
|
Month |
Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
Year |
|
Mean daily
maximum °C (°F) |
12.8 |
15.8 |
19.8 |
25.3 |
33.0 |
39.0 |
42.3 |
42.1 |
37.9 |
31.0 |
22.5 |
14.8 |
28.0 |
|
Mean daily
minimum °C (°F) |
3.2 |
4.6 |
7.6 |
11.7 |
17.3 |
21.8 |
24.8 |
24.1 |
19.7 |
14.3 |
8.8 |
4.1 |
13.5 |
|
Average precipitation mm (inches) |
43 |
39 |
49 |
36 |
13 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
8 |
25 |
44 |
257 |
|
Source: climate-data.org |
|||||||||||||
See also[edit]
.svg){kind=small}
·
Destruction
of cultural heritage by ISIL
·
Taq-i
Kisra, sharing architectural features with structures at
Hatra
References[edit]
1.
^ Dirven,
L. (2013). Hatra: Politics, Culture and Religion Between Parthia and
Rome. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-10507-1.
Retrieved 2023-09-29.
2.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e Schmitt,
Rüdiger. "HATRA". iranicaonline.org. Encyclopaedia Iranica.
Retrieved 16 March 2019.
3.
^ "Hatra
| ancient city, Iraq". Encyclopedia
Britannica. Retrieved 2020-12-25.
4.
^ Jump up to:a b c "Hatra". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Retrieved 14 December 2013.
5.
^ Jump up to:a b Advisory
Body Evaluation on Hatra. International
Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS). 1985. pages 1–2.
6.
^ E.J.
Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936. BRILL. 1987.
p. 207a. ISBN 9789004082656.
7.
^ Salma,
K. Jayyusi; Holod, Renata; Petruccioli, Attilio; André, Raymond (2008). The
City in the Islamic World. Leiden: Brill.
p. 174. ISBN 9789004162402.
8.
^ "Hatra
UNESCO World Heritage Centre". whc.unesco.org/en.
UNESCO. 1992–2015. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
9.
^ Jump up to:a b c Rosenfield,
John M. (1967). The
Dynastic Arts of the Kushans. University of
California Press. pp. 170–173.
10. ^ Freeman,
Colin s (25 June 2014). "Iraq's
'Exorcist' temple falls into Isis jihadist hand". The
Telegraph. London. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
11. ^ "Hatra". whc.unesco.org. UNESCO.
Retrieved 7 March 2015.
12. ^ Hatra – Italian
Archaeological Expedition
13. ^ "L'Edificio
A". Hatra – Italian Archaeological
Expedition (in Italian). 2016-11-25. Retrieved 2020-07-25.
14. ^ "I
sondaggi del Temenos". Hatra –
Italian Archaeological Expedition (in Italian). 2016-11-25.
Retrieved 2020-07-25.
15. ^ "Progetti/
Projects". Hatra –
Italian Archaeological Expedition (in Italian). 2016-12-10.
Retrieved 2020-07-25.
16. ^ Gawlikowski,
Michał (1991). "The
first season of excavations in Hatra, Iraq" (PDF). Polish
Archaeology in the Mediterranean. 2.
17. ^ Freeman,
Colin (4 January 2004). "American
troops launch 'Exorcist' tour at ancient temple". The
Telegraph.
18. ^ Lawrence
Rothfield (1 Aug 2009). The
Rape of Mesopotamia: Behind the Looting of the Iraq Museum.
University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226729435.
19. ^ "Ancient
Hatra Ruins". Defense
Video & Imagery Distribution System.
9 September 2006.
20. ^ Cockburn,
Patrick (27 February 2015). "Iraq:
Isis militants pledged to destroy remaining archaeological treasures in
Nimrud". The Independent. Archived from
the original on 2022-05-09. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
21. ^ "ISIL
video shows destruction of 7th century artifacts". aljazeera.com.
26 February 2015. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
22. ^ Karim
Abou Merhi (5 March 2015). "IS
'bulldozed' ancient Assyrian city of Nimrud, Iraq says".
AFP. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
23. ^ Yacoub,
Sameer N. (7 March 2015). "IS
destroying another ancient archaeological site in Iraq". Army
Times. United States. Associated Press. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
24. ^ "Islamic
state 'demolish' ancient Hatra site in Iraq".
BBC. 29 September 2022. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
25. ^ Vivian
Salama (4 Apr 2015). "Video:
Islamic State group shot, hammered away Iraq's Hatra".
Associated Press.
26. ^ Yacoub,
Sameer N.; Salam, Vivian (7 March 2015). "IS
destroying another ancient site in Iraq". The Telegraph.
Macon, Georgia. Archived from the
original on 10 March 2015.
Retrieved 8 March 2015.
27. ^ "Iraqi
forces retake damaged Hatra heritage site from IS". Deutsche
Welle. 26 April 2017. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
28. ^ Hussain,
Rikar (27 April 2017). "Iraqi
Militias Find Relics Destroyed by IS in Ancient Town". Voice
of America. Retrieved 29
April 2017.
29. ^ "Hatra:
IS damage to ancient Iraqi city less than feared". BBC
News. 1 May 2017. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
Further reading[edit]
·
al-Salihi,
W. (2021). "Hatra: Three Notes, Historical, Iconographical, and
Religious". Iraq. 83: 3–12. doi:10.1017/irq.2021.12. S2CID 239871840.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hatra.
·
Between
Rome and Parthia: The Desert City of Hatra
·
http://lexicorient.com/e.o/hathra.htm Archived 2006-07-27
at the Wayback Machine
·
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9039509
·
http://shezaf.net/english/Video/Video/Hatra.html Archived 2011-07-16
at the Wayback Machine
·
http://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/chronicle/8612.shtml BBC Chronicle "Lost
Kings of the Desert"
·
https://hatrasite.com/ Italian
Archaeological Expedition at Hatra
·
Hatra
·
History of Nineveh Governorate
·
Archaeological sites in Iraq
·
World Heritage Sites in Iraq
·
Populated places destroyed during
wars
·
Former populated places in Iraq
·
This page was last edited on 18 March
2024, at 06:18 (UTC).
