۱۳۹۳ مهر ۲۱, دوشنبه

ویترای vitray, stained glass

تاریخچه ی ویترای

تزئین ظروف شیشه ای با رنگ و نقاشی هنری است که قرن ها در میان ملل مختلف محبوبیت داشته است و آثار متعدد و متنوعی از این هنر را می توان در موزه های نقاط مختلف جهان یافت. گذشته از ظروف شیشه ای شکیل با نقاشی های حرفه ای و یا کنده کاری های پیچیده و ظریف که از گذشته های دور تا حال توسط هنرمندان چیره دست در این رشته آفریده شده گاه ایجاد طرح ها و حتی خطوط ساده رنگی نیز می توانند ظروف شیشه ای بسیار ساده را به ظروفی زیبا و چشمگیر تبدیل کنند.
تاریخچه:


نقاشی پشت شیشه از هنرهای بسیار قدیمی اروپاست و اولین نمونه‌ی کشف شده‌ی آن در منطقه آپولیا (Apulia) در جنوب ایتالیای امروزی به دوران هلنی در اواخر قرن سوم میلادی است. در کاوش‌های بعدی تعدادی مدالیون با نقاشی پشت شیشه در کاتاکومب ها (دخمه های اجساد) در ایتالیا پیدا شده که متعلق به قرن سوم و چهارم بعد از میلاد است.

هنر شیشه‌گری ساسانی تاثیر زیادی بر ساخته های هنرمندان داشته و آثار گرانبهایی از این دست در موزه های جهان وجود دارد. هجوم قبائل وحشی در طول قرن های چهارم و پنجم میلادی به روم سبب شد تا دوران عظمت امپراطوری و شکوه فرهنگی آن رو به زوال گذارد و این امر سبب مهاجرت اقوام ژرمن به مناطق دیگر روم ،از جمله آلمان، فرانسه، بریتانیا و اسپانیای امروز شد. لیکن امپراطوری روم شرقی تحت نام بیزانس تا سقوط قسطنطنیه در سال 1453 م. مرکز رومی و یونانی باقی ماند.

روش چسباندن ورقه های نازک فلزی(فویل) نقاشی شده به پشت شیشه، در اروپا و در قرون 13-12 میلادی متداول شد و یکی از زیباترین نقاشیها نقاشی پشت شیشه نماز خانه سنت استفان در کلیسای وست مینستر لندن است که متاسفانه بسیاری از این پنجره ها تخریب شد. دوران باشکوه شیشه سازی در اروپا قرن پانزدهم میلادی است که تقاضای زیادی برای ساخت اشیای تزئینی وجود داشت و شهر ونیز در این هنر سر آمد تمام اروپا و حوزه‌ی شرقی دریای مدیترانه شد و همچنین به سبب به وجود آمدن شبکه‌ی تجاری وسیع در این زمان بین این شهر و بازار های خاور نزدیک به کشورهای حوزه‌ی دریای سیاه و اروپای غربی شد و نمونه های زیبای شیشه‌ی ونیز به سراسر دنیا صادر شد.


اختراع دستگاه چاپ در سال 1450 م توسط گوتنبرگ آلمانی استفاده از طرح های چاپی در نقاشی پشت شیشه را برای هنرمندان آلمانی و دیگر نقاط اروپا پدید آورد. بتدریج این شیوه نقاشی به صورت مستقل برای تهیه تابلوهای مذهبی نیز به کار گرفته شد. هزاران کلیسا و نمازخانه آلمان اطریش، رومانی ، چکسلواکی ، اسپانیا ، پرتقال و ایتالیا همیشه خواهان مقدار زیادی نقاشی پشت شیشه بودند . بزرگترین هنرمندان سال های1600م در اروپا "هانس جاکوب اسپرونگلی" و "کرستیوف مورد" بودند که کارهایشان را امضا کردند. در سال های بعد نقاشی پشت شیشه رنگین تر شد و تحت تاثیر باروک و روکوکو قرار گرفت و از آئینه برای دورگیری نقاشی ها استفاده می کردند و فاصله بین آینه و شیشه را با نوارهای قلع فشرده پر می کردند. درقرن17 م این هنر به کشور فرانسه برده شد و مورد توجه قرار گرفت. این هنر را در فرانسه Fixes sous verre یا تثبیت شده روی شیشه می نامیدند. و چون این اشیای تزئینی را در پاریس یک فروشنده آثار هنری به نام "ژان باپتسیت گلومی" به فروش می رساند به شیشه به سبک گلومی معرفی گشت .

در سال 1800 م که در انگلستان سبک ریجنسی(Regency) متداول بود. ساخت آینه های چهار گوش که حاشیه آنها با شیشه های نقاشی شده تزئین می شد رواج یافت . بعدها نمونه هایی از نقاشی پشت شیشه به آمریکا برده شد و آنان سمبل های ملی خود مثل عقاب و خوشه گندم را بر پشت شیشه اجرا کردند.

پس از وقوع انقلاب کبیر فرانسه در سال 1789 م و جنگهای ناپلئون بناپارت در اروپا صادرات نقاشی پشت شیشه دچار رکود شد. در قرن 19 م سفارشاتی از بازارهای آمریکا برای ساخت این آثار به اروپا می رسید و امروزه هم هنرمندانی در سراسر جهان به این هنر می پردازند . لیکن نقاشی پشت شیشه هرگز به محبوبیت قبل از قرن 19 م نرسیده و دوران شکوه و اعتلای آن به تدریج رو به افول است.
ورود ويتراي به ایران
تاریخ دقیق ورود این نوع نقاشی به ایران هنوز مشخص شده نیست، لیکن به احتمال زیاد نقاشی پشت شیشه از کشور آلمان وارد ایران شده است. روایات پذیرفتنی حاکی از آن است که این شیوه نقاشی از طریق بندر ونیز به سراسر دنیا صادرشده و از این طریق به بنادر جنوبی ایران رسیده و مورد توجه مردم قرار گرفته است.
این شیوه نقاشی بر پشت شیشه تخت اجرا می شود. در زمان صفویه این نوع شیشه در اصفهان و در شیراز تهیه می شده است. لیکن به دلیل فقدان نمونه های نقاشی پشت شیشه دوره صفوی تاکید بر تولید این نوع نقاشی در آن دوران میسر نیست.
در قرن دهم هجری (16م) با تاسیس سلسله صفوی دوران طلایی هنر ایران آغاز شد . لیکن از آن دوران آثار چندانی در دست نیست. پس از صفویه و در دوران افشاریه ترقی خاصی در هنرها مشاهده نمی شود.
با تاسیس سلسله زندیه و آغاز حکومت کریم خان زند بنیان گذاری کارگاه های بزرگ صنعتی از قبیل کارگاه های شیشه گری شیراز بنا نهاده شد ،محصول شیشه این کارخانه کاملا سفید نبود لیکن هنرمندان این دوره در تهیه شیشه های رنگی متبحر بودند. ظروف شیشه ای به رنگ آبی تند ،سبز تیره، زرد و خرمایی ساخته می شد و با ظرافت تزئین می گردید.
دوران افول سیاسی ایران در زمان قاجار، سبب شد که ایرانی برای احیای صنعت کشور و ایجاد کارگاه های مختلف و آموختن بلور سازی به مسکو و سن پترزبورگ بروند. و قائم مقام فراهانی و امیر کبیر نقش بسیاری در تاسیس کارخانه های جدید داشتند.
یکی از محصولات این کارخانه ها در اصفهان، تهران و قم ساخت شیشه های تخت بود که برای نقاشی ويتراي استفاده می شد. روش ساخت شیشه های تخت، سنتی و با دست و دارای کیفیت مطلوب نبوده است. تا آنکه در سال 1318 ه.ش در زمان پهلوی اول سلطنت شیشه های تخت با روش کششی در کارخانه شیشه ایران آغاز شد. نقاشی پشت شیشه در دوران زندیه به شهرهای جنوبی ایران رسیده و با مکتب گل و مرغ خانه های اعیانی را تزئین می نموده است و آنها را درگچ سقف ها و دیوارها همراه با قطعات آینه به کار می بردند.
از نقاشان به نام پشت شیشه در آن دروه آقا صادق شیرازی شاگرد علی اشرف نقاش معروف قرن 12 ه بوده است .با شروع دوره فتحعلیشاه شیوه نقاشی صورت یا شبیه کشی بین نقاشان درباری و شبیه کش رواج می یابد و در این دوره نقاشی پشت شیشه به شکل مستقل اجرا می شود.
به طور کلی در دوران قاجار این هنر بین مردم محبوبیت یافته و نقاشان زیادی به این هنر پرداختند .
نقاشی پشت شیشه را از نظر مضمون و محتوا به دو دسته میتوان تقسیم کرد:
1- نقاشی های مذهبی که شامل خط، خط نقاشی و شمایل نگاری است.
2- نقاشی های تزئینی مرکب از گل و مرغ، تصویر نگاری و دورنما است.

علاوه بر موارد بالا نقاشیهای پشت شیشه با محتوای تقلیدی از نقاشی های خیالی سازی(قهوه خانه ای) را هم باید نام برد که تاریخ پیدایش آنها به حدود دهه چهل ه .ش باز می گردد و تا به امروزادامه دارد. در برخی از تابلو های نقاشی پشت شیشه از موارد ومصالحی به غیر از رنگ برای تزئین استفاده شده است مانند نخ ابریشم، که برای لباس اولیاء و ضحیه بانوان اهل بیت مورد استفاده قرار گرفته است.
استفاده از کاغذ های براق طلایی و نقره ای که لفاف شکلاتهای سوغات فرنگ بوده اند در نقاشی پشت شیشه ایرانی به سالها پیش از رواج کلاژ توسط پیکاسو(1912 م ) باز می گردد.
برای حفظ نقاشی از آسیب حشرات اغلب پشت تابلو را با یک ورقه جلی و یا کاغذ تنباکو پوشانده این جلی ها در ایران نایاب بوده و نقاشان آنها را از فروشندگان خرما تهیه می کردند.
نقاشی پشت شیشه در گذر ایام از انحصار نقش گل و مرغ بیرون می آید و هنرمندان به خلق آثاری همانند چشم نور از پل رودخانه و نمای بیرونی بناهایی چون کلیساهای فرنگ پرداختند که عمده این آثار در اصفهان تولید می شده است .


برچسب‌ها: تاریخچه ویترای, نقاشی روی شیشه, نقاشی پشت شیشه, ورود ویترای به ایران, Fixes sous verre,ریجنسیRegency

Stained glass


Window of the xvi th  centuryreassembled by Samuel Coucke (1861). Notre Dame du Sablon in Brussels
The stained glass is a glass composition consisting of spare glass . They may be white or colored, and may receive a decoration. The word refers to a technique window while closing a bay with fixed glass is called a glass .
Since the beginning of the Middle Ages , these parts are assembled by rods lead , called the same way, "  lead  . " This process, though today still dominant, is not the only one in use: other techniques, such as those of copper tape (also known as Tiffany method, its designer Louis Comfort Tiffany ), the slab embedded in the concrete or silicone, collages (with resins or polymers), glass thermoforming offusing and stained glass for free, can be used or combined.
A stained glass is called glazing where its design is geometric and repetitive (eg diamonds or terminals). Glazing is generally clear and unpainted.

Detail of a stained glass panel of St. Thomas of Canterbury Cathedral.
Painted glass surface is apparent.The shot H are visible with their welded joints, as well as irons and son stiffeners copper bind to stained glass.

Summary

  [ pin up ] 

History [ edit | edit the code ]

Related article: History of glass .

The origins [ change | change the code ]

Coloured glass has been produced since the earliest times. As the Egyptians the Romans excelled in the manufacture of small colored glass objects. The British Museum has two exceptional Roman pieces, the Lycurgus Cup , which takes the color mustard color purple hues when light passes through it and the Portland vase , blue white night with incised decoration.
The Romans used to decorate their baths with mosaics of colored glass (such as "  millefiori "mosaics of colored glass), which allowed to dim the lights, and wealthy Romans closed the windows of their houses with painted glass colorful one . Mosaics inlaid with gold and polychrome glass adorn the architrave , the entablature and columns of the Basilica of St. Paul Outside the Walls from the iv th century 2 .
In the early Christian churches of iv th and v th  centuries can still be seen by many openings hidden patterns in very thin sheets of alabaster set into wooden frames, giving a stained glass effect primitive.And five stained glass windows are listed in the Hagia Sophia , dating from the vi th  century. There are also the first stained glass windows for St. Vincent Basilica in Paris, now defunct, and one of the firstroses stained glass, called chives , the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna , showing Christ blessing 3 .Western European churches massively adopt this new mode vii th  century, as at Bourges and York .In the East, too, have found the remains of stained glass viii th  century during excavations of a church in Jericho , but the Byzantine use abandons the window afterwards 4 .
Similar effects were achieved with great sophistication by Oriental creators in Asia Minor and Persiausing colored glass instead of stone.

The medieval stained glass [ change | change the code ]


Stained novel of the Notre Dame Cathedral of Augsburgdepicting the prophet Daniel (to 1065).

Making stained glass xii th century.
Main article: Technique of stained glass in the Middle Ages .
As an art form, the art of stained glass reached its peak in the Middle Ages.
From the vi th  century Italy, influenced by Rome, acquires stained glass encased in wooden frames, sometimes in metal chassis or set in plaster or stucco, this technique stabilizing the windows being gradually replaced (they remain robust iron frames that are still visible in the Chartres Cathedral and at the eastern end of the nave of the Cathedral of Canterbury )) from the x th  century in the West through the leaded stained glass which is more resistant to moisture of its climate and is a more flexible and malleable material 5 . These windows do not use colors like gray, brown and black, so they are quite dark and are used to emphasize the shadows or draw draperies characters 2 . Most did not survive the damage of time, the fact remains that the fragments in the Cathedral of St. Benignus of Dijon , the Beauvais Cathedral , the church Carolingian of Lorch or the shrine of Sery-les-Mezieres 6 .
The technique of making stained glass is described for the first time in history in De arte vitriaria second book of the Treaty on trades Schedula diversum artium written in the first quarter of the XII th century by the monk Theophilus Presbyter 7 .
During periods Romanesque and early Gothic (950-1240), the openings develop, requiring more glass. TheRomanesque style using the arch allows only limited openings, promoting gambling contrast between shadow and lightand is characterized primarily by small windows in assembly square or circular medallions, the scenes are lined with rich floral motifs (acanthus finials, leaves, petals, beadwork) 8 . The home of medieval stained glass lead is first in France , including the Basilica of Saint-Denis in ix th  century, or at Auxerre or Reims .
The Cistercian develop in relation to their ideal of simplicity and counting, a type of colorless window mostly composed of non-figurative and repetitive decorative motifs, as in the Aubazine Abbey . At the same time, religious concerns Suger lead to the great theological and liturgical significance to the colors and brightness in the design of stained glass in the Basilica of Saint-Denis . The invention of the Gothic architecture appears as the desire to replace the transparency of glass with opaque walls that tend to reduce the rib which fits the glass. The pointed arch and ribbed help balance the forces on piles. So the walls no longer have to bear the weight of the structure and can then be opened outwardnine . With ornamental development of Gothic architecture , so the openings are becoming bigger, better lighting interiors. The Cathedral of Metz innovates by acquiring aisles relatively low compared with vaulted nave (over 27m difference) to enable the realization towering canopies that will make the most glass cathedral in Europe. Light becomes abundant enough for painter glassmakers can play color by many windows. The latter allow to see anything from the outside but let the light inside. Gothic architecture is innovating by introducing a partitioning of windows by vertical pillars, mullions and patterns of stone. The narrative composition superimposed scenes (reading this iconography generally making left to right starting from the bottom) is accompanied by more naturalistic settings and characters in Gothic pritif and radiant. The complexity of these openings peaked in the huge picture of the flamboyant style with European figures are growing, can occupy the bay, while the characters presented are beginning to resemble more mannered 10 .
Integrated into the trend towards vertical elevation of cathedrals and parish churches, stained glass creations become more and more daring.The circular form, or rosettes developed in France, evolved from relatively simple openings in the stone walls to huge rosettes, like the west pediment of the Cathedral of Chartres . This cathedral is famous for its "Chartres blue" and stained glass windows of xiii th  century. The time of the cathedrals in France sees the explosion of this art, as Our Lady of Paris , Bourges , Amiens , Reims , Rouen , or at Le Mans and in the Germanic countries, as in Strasbourg , Augsburg , Cologne , Erfurt , Regensburg , etc. These models achieve enormous complexity, lace stone being branched into hundreds of different points, such as Paris 's Sainte-Chapelle , a true vessel of light.
The painter's palette-glass consisting essentially of blue and red, is enriched xiii th  century emerald green or olive green, crimson red and crimson, purple 7 , then the xiv th  century silver stain 11 that can enhance color and tint the windows in the mass whose painting glass became too expensive during the Hundred Years War 2 .
The achievement of medieval stained glass requires significant funding, master glassmakers , and anonymous good cause (some names have come from the Renaissance, such Arnoult Nijmegen Engrand Leprince , Romain Buron , Dominique Florentin , Jean Suddenly Bléville Mathieu,Arnaud de Moles , Valentin Bousch 7 ), being highly paid artists. And two thirds of the budget of a cathedral dedicated to stained glass, a third architecture 12 . Financing windows is first provided by donations of prelates, nobles and from the xiv th  century by the corporations and the wealthy bourgeois patrons who play in the side chapels and are found in the parish factories that take precedence Bishops on 13 .
The term "cathedral of light", meaning medieval churches bathed in light, however, is qualified: the stained glass windows that filter natural light tend to darken churches and cathedrals all over the smoke of candles and incense foul walls and windows that clog and become opaque over the centuries (windows leachable ) 14  ; the clergy of the xvii th  century and especially the xviii th  century that seeks clarity and favors to clear decorative borders and stained glass glassworks gray that make less gloomy churches 5 . The windows are supposed to be uplifting for loyaland often depict scenes Bible , the lives of saints or even daily life in the Middle Ages , constituting a true "  Bible of the poor  (in)  . " They are considered true imaged media, like a comic strip for the Catechism of the faithful supposed to have then just raise the eyes . In reality, this utilitarian view of medieval art is false: the windows exist as works of art in themselves because some windows were too high 15 to be legible, their scenes are often too small and far located up to eye were not interpretable (with the exception of classics that were the Nativity, Assumption, etc.) by the faithful (the original catechism that is not addressed to the faithful but to the priests) 16 .
But beyond the representation iconography , but also for the whole symbolism of the light that had been use windows during the Middle Ages , especially during the so-called Gothic period. According Vitellion , intellectual of the xiii th  century , there are two kinds of light: divine light ( God ) and physical light (manifestation of God). The windows were then responsible for transforming light physical in divine light, that is to bring God's presence in the cathedral . Furthermore, the light from the windows is intended to delineate a microcosm heavenly heart of the church.

Examples of roses or roses in stained glass [ change | change the code ]

Stained glass in the Renaissance [ change | change the code ]

The first designs of stained glass in the Renaissance are probably due to Lorenzo Ghiberti for the Cathedral of Florence: these include three oculi in the dome and three at the front and are made ​​from 1405 to 1445 by several artists such as Ghiberti, Donatello , Uccello and Andrea del Castagno 17 .
Tradition Gothic sometimes while maintaining the ancient inspiration of Renaissance artists is reflected in the decorative details or the clothing worn by some characters. The window runs parallel in civil architecture, including castles. The Renaissance marks the decline of stained glass as an autonomous art, painters replacing the master glassmakers 8 .

Stained glass in xvii th  century xviii th  century [ change | change the code ]

The classic architecture favors gray or white glass, the darkness of Gothic churches being equated with obscurantism and symbolic iconography of the Middle Ages is not understood, and many stained glass windows were destroyed 18 . The baroque architecture accentuates the decline of the medieval stained glass claiming a white light to showcase his artwork colorful 8 .

Stained glass in xix th  century [ change | change the code ]

This section is empty, insufficiently detailed or incomplete. Your help is welcome!
After the revolutionary upheaval, the neo-Gothic and neo-Romanesque revival show for the medieval stained glass through romantic 8 .
It is with the movement "  Art Nouveau  "at the end of the xix th  century stained glass becomes a living art 7 .

The stained glass xx th  century [ change | change the code ]

Stained glass in glass [ change | change the code ]


stained glass in glass
This is a particular technique, very recent compared to the age-old art of traditional stained glass. In 1929, in his studio in Montigny-les-Cormeilles , north of Paris, the glass Jules Albertini is developing the first slab of glass (glass plates 20 × 30 cm of 2-3 cm . thick) with the mosaic Jean Gaudin who is the first artist to perform in France stained glass in glass; Auguste Labouret then filed in 1933 a patent for a new technique of "stained glass tiles broken array cement armed." Charles Lorin adopts in turn.His student Gabriel Loire at Chartres, will make its expression technique. It is very successful in the fifties, Trappist monks, monks Benedictine ( Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire , Calcat , Buckfast ...) adopt it in their studios stained glass as scores of civilians workshops related large orders of reconstruction and construction of modern churches. Painters, as Bazaine or Léger , for commissioning in glass beautiful sets (see church 's Audincourt Doubs). If this technique is gradually increased from "fashion", some creators have made ​​it their preferred mode of expression, such as a glass painter Henri Guérin (1929-2009) 19 .
Initially, the work is done using a wedge and hammer used to cut pieces of glass in small glass blocks 2 to 3 centimeters thick in the shape of a brick 20 . We put the piece of glass on the corner, and it strikes with the hammer to separate the pieces until the desired shape, using the same method of "calibration" described above.
The pieces thus obtained are then arranged in the model into a form consisting of wooden brackets. A meticulous and inspired flaking, made ​​with special martelines on the edge of the glasses, enriches them to shine and shades. This formwork is used for casting concrete which constitutes the frame of the glass plate in the desired shapes and dimensions. Then poured concrete.
During the casting operation, the metal rods are immersed in the concrete to strengthen the frame.
It is the need to have a very robust frame, due to the weight of the glass pieces, giving these windows this massive appearance when viewed from the outside of a building.
Nowadays, technology has evolved to the use of resin epoxy , whose strength has reduced the frame widths, from a minimum of 4 inches less than 1 cm , depending on the surface of the window.

Stained glass free [ change | change the code ]


Stained glass free directed by Guy Simard, 2003
This is a technique of contemporary stained glass pieces made ​​of various types and textures (antique glass chips glass plate, glass rods, glass beads, beach glass , recycled glass, etc.) combined and deposited between two panes, spaced about 2 cm , set into a framework of wood or metal. This technique was developed in the early 1980s simultaneously by Guy Simard, Quebec glass artist, and Beatrice Hermitte glass artist in France ( Soleau envelopefiled with the INPI ). Although they have the same spirit, this technique is quite different from that of free-rolling patented by Eric Wesselow ( Rome Prize ), Canadian artist glass of Polish origin.Stained glass free glass differs from traditional stained glass set lead in five areas:
  1. While large windows of churches or cathedrals appear as large flat areas , stained glass free rather watch a wide variety of textures. The window is then said or perceived as being more dynamic in the sense that when the point light (a point of light), such as the sun continues its course, or as the viewer moves relative to the window, the effects of light also move from a piece of glass to another.
  2. Achieving a window open glass requires about four to five times longer than traditional stained glass and the amount of glass used is multiplied in the same proportion. What makes the windows open glass are about as heavy as the stained glass panels of glass.
  3. A stained glass free built a bit like a high warp tapestry. It rises upwards. The glass pieces are deposited freely in the glass box that serves their cockpit, it follows that it is absolutely impossible to produce two windows in exactly the same free glass, which is possible, against, traditional stained glass.
  4. A window open glass contains no glue or use any form of crimping. Which holds the glass, it is only its setting, containing glass and metal or wood. This means that the glass pieces inside the stained glass can move freely if, for example, the window is rotated 180 degrees vertically, that is to say when the top is down and the Downstairs is pointing upward. Thus, the glass is more compact, less he can move.
  5. A traditional leaded stained glass could, ultimately, measuring two meters by two meters. A stained glass free of more than one square meter involves specific technical constraints. In particular, the lateral pressure increases rapidly at the center of the window, so that the windows that hold the glass pieces tend to bulge. Most part, the larger windows must be thick. For example, glass of 4 mm thick enough for a frame of 60 × 60 cm , then it is necessary to use glass of 5 to 6 mm for a part of a square meter.

Key steps in making a stained glass leaded [ change | change the code ]

Stained glass and glazing lead are realized by the same method: combining lead and glass. The glass is flat, with a thickness varying between1.5 mm and 5 mm , and the lead is in the form of rods, H-shaped bed. The pieces of glass are set into the shot and the whole is maintained through the final welds performed at each intersection of the shot.

Design [ change | change the code ]


Mock stained glass for coffee Namur in Luxembourg by Franz Wilhelm Seiwert, 1928.
The technique of stained glass leaves little room for improvisation during the performance. The design, color, strength and durability of the window ... but also the quality of light that penetrate the architecture must be defined in advance.

The model [ change | change the code ]

It is a document which shows a detailed stained glass by representing 1:10 scale preview. The model includes the path of the shot, the color of glass, paint and eventual passage of the metal armatures. It serves as a starting point for developing a quote. The model highlights the proportions of the parts relative to each other and relative to the window size (especially in the case of glassworks). The model serves as a reference throughout the realization of stained glass.

Staining [ change | change the code ]

This step determines the harmony of different colored glasses. Glasses are chosen according to the color shown on the model and taking into account their nature: ancient, plated, printed ... Around 1655 Pierre Boulanger invented many different forms of stained glass.

The route [ change | change the code ]

This is the "drafting" of the panel, made to scale 1/1 on bubble wrap. The network weights is drawn accurately using the model as a template. It is then sized so that the glass is cut. In the case of a figurative stained glass: one proceeds to an enlargement of the model. If one has a card can be traced on the drawing paper of the seals. In the case of glazing: a compass baluster is used to bring the same spacings.
The pieces are differentiated by numbers to be easily located. This information may be the number of the bay, the number panel in the bay and the part number in the panel. They may also mention the reference glass that is assigned to them. A sheet of glass can have changes in value will be visible on parts. We can therefore indicate the direction of the gradient (+ / -) or intensity chosen (high, medium, low).

Layer [ change | change the code ]


Contemporary Stained Glass
Before being calibrated, the line is carried over a layer. This "backup" is important for the realization of future copies or repairs of broken parts. It also serves to position the parts that are cut and avoid confusion and loss. A second layer can be made for crimping, it will guide being slipped under the panel.

Calibration [ change | change the code ]

After making the layer, the line is cut methodically. The calibration is used to keep the panel measures taking account of the glass assembly / lead. It is necessary to remove the thickness of the soul of lead ( 1.75 mm ) on the plot. It is distributed on each side of the line, and then removed.Strong paper templates that guide for cutting each piece is obtained. It is made ​​differently depending on the pattern of the panel:
  • calibration to the blade and straight edge is used for straight patterns (diamonds, terminals ...) the parts cut is often at freelancing . The tool passes symmetrically on either side of the line;
  • calibration to calibrate scissors (also called chisel three blades) is used for cutting curved shapes. They have a central blade measuring1.75 mm thickness which removes the soul of lead.

Cutting [ change | change the code ]


Preparation of parts.
Cutting parts is very precise because each defect may alter the results, either in action or in the ground. Templates are a guide for each room and their superposition with the parts must be perfect. A diamond (natural or synthetic) or a glass cutter (wheel glazier) is used. In general, the action of the cutting is done in two stages: a scratch and then stall. If the scratch is done correctly, the glass "file" and dropping out is exactly at this point (a crack initiation is created that helps guide the cut). In all cases, the higher the stall is delayed, the less easy because the cut is then closed gradually. If the hand can not get the two pieces, a clamp is used to detach positioned perpendicular to the cut line. If the edges are not perfect after the stall are rectified with pliers to swindle. For a better finish, carborundum stone improves the edge parts.
The organization has a different pattern and type of parts to be debited:
  • If each piece is unique , each individual class is used. This case is often applied to patterns calibrated with scissors three blades. The glass cutter strictly follows the edge of the pattern without encroaching.
To get a room, you must run multiple marks, that is to say as many features as its outline understands. Generally, the most difficult sides trimmed priority to avoid loss of time and material.
For parts that have hollow, this is done by "cuts of appeal" that advance successively to the desired shape.
  • For a piece that is repeated in series , successive passages of glass cutter will deform the gauge. One can make a copy in a more resistant material called foil .
If the parts have identical widths and parallel, they are cut in series with a rod. The bands are cut by sliding the rod on the glass sheet against the rule of the cutting table. To cut rectangles, is needed for a gauge length and a second width. The first tape is charged by the second freelancing. To cut squares or diamonds, is used twice in the same dig it! This process preserves precisely the dimensions of parts to be identical.
To remove the same serial portion of a workpiece to straight edges, are manufactured machinery . The room is wedged into a small assembly rules woods where you slide the glass cutter against the last piece nailed. In this way, the passage of the tool is always in the same place.

Crimping [ change | change the code ]


Window of the xiii th  century church of Soissons.

Stained glass Sulkowski castle in Bielsko-Biala .
Also called "  lead set  ", it starts when the parts of the panel are cut and they are no longer require treatment decoration (painting, baking, sand blasting, ...). Crimping includes all steps to assemble the glasses and weights. The "path of lead" determine the organization. It is studied in advance to obtain a solid network and logic during assembly. Beyond its mechanical function, the path lead draws the pattern of stained glass; crimping must respect the design to make it readable.
Facilities and equipment: The pasteboard is the support that will receive the assembly. It is made of wood (poplar preferably) and receives two rules nailed perpendicular to the edges.These rules are beveled to receive the lead entourage. The assembly rests in the corner formed on the left or right of the editor after it is left or right handed.
The editor uses knives mounting widths that cut the lead and handle it. Use may also lead to a knife-shaped sickle. This curved blade has a tip and ending in a handle provided with a stop often tin to replace the hammer. The hammer is used to tap the ends of the leads, planting nails assembly, pack the glasses in the shot (with handle) and pack the panel when the crimp is complete. Opener lead is used to spread the wings of sinkers they host parts. The mounting nails used to temporarily hold the parts during assembly. Their shape is tapered to avoid chipping the glass and they can be removed easily.
Implementation principles lead
Every lead should be slightly flattened at its end in order to penetrate to the heart of another already installed. A lead between two glasses should be immediately cut and flattened so that the next can cover assembly is completed. A lead is never cut in the middle of a room, the following has always stop it. Prior to being welded, the wings are folded pellets using a spatula to consolidate the fold panel. This tool is made of wood or plastic and may have two forms: either for the two wings folded together or bind to a single wing at once.

Welding [ change | change the code ]

When all the fuses are connected, the network is secured by melting of a little tin on each intersection.
The metal tin is used for welding as it melts at a very low temperature ( 232 ° C ). It is used in the form of rods with a mixture composed of 40% lead, to form a concentration close to the eutectic melting at a lower temperature. Olein is applied to each intersection with the aid of a brush or by impregnating the tin rod. This oil is used to etch the surface of the lead for the solder adheres. Stearin is used; it performs the same function as olein but it has the appearance of a white waxy block that is rubbed at intersections. The soldering iron is a device that generates heat to a copper tip, it may be electric or gas. These errors are of variable size and shape.
Overlapping wings of lead is covered and hidden under the tin. Welding is slightly convex without being too big. Its shape is centered on the intersection without being symmetrically spread too and the assembly formed is homogeneous. The second face of the panel is then contresoudée except surrounding lead which is not.

Grouting [ change | change the code ]


Stained glass of Louis Comfort Tiffany (1890), Yale University .
This ensures the seal and consolidates the window. It remains controversial among professional because its long-term effects can affect the quality of materials. When the leads are soldered, the panel is not yet sealed. The fine spaces between the glass and the seals are filled in using a sealant liquid. It is applied using a round brush it enters between the flanges of the seals and the glass surface. This requires intensive cleaning using the sawdust and abrush couch .
This type of grouting is strongly discouraged in the case of an old panel with painted parts: one then has a putty "finger" with the same putty (made stronger); which avoids all contact surfaces.
Mastic is a composition of linseed oil , of whiting (Spain, Troyes) and drying (to accelerate drying). The panel then dry in several variants, some do not folding wings before grouting; can also clean with newspaper, etc.

Vocabulary [ change | change the code ]

Related article: Glossary of glazing .

Stained glass from 1883 to 1884 made ​​New York for Henry Gurdon Marquand mansion
  • Wing lead: the visible part of the lead came, of variable width, now the pieces of glass.
  • Core lead: lead internal crossbar (bar "H"), inserted at the lead set, between the edges of the glass pieces.
  • Barlotière: plate matching the shape of the panels it supports metal bar.
  • Caliber: form strong paper used as a template or a template to cut a piece of glass.
  • Cardboard cut: decal assembly cardboard on strong paper, then cut into sizes.
  • Cardboard assembly: scale model of stained glass, bearing the specific layout requirements of lead or copper.
  • Scissors calibrate scissors triple blade for cutting templates, provided with additional blade center off a strip of paper from the web thickness of lead or copper foil.
  • Chives: piece of circular glass obtained small blow with a bullseye in the center.
  • Chip slab of glass: glass panel brightness cut with a small hammer.
  • Carburizing color: color comprises a dye of metallic origin which, by means of a cement, or vehicle, gets into the surface layers of the glass and colors after baking.
  • Vitrifiable Color: Painting composed of a dye and a flux which, deposited on the glass before curing, is transformed into a glass melt material integral with the glass.
  • Cup freelance: Repeat cut glass pieces of similar shape. A rod is used instead of the caliber heavy paper.
  • Cutting class: done following the contour templates Cup.
  • Slab of glass: glass piece 30 × 20 cm and about 25 mm thick, cast in a mold and used in the manufacture of stained glass assembled reinforced concrete or epoxy resin.
  • Enamel  : combining a transparent colored glass batch melting by using colored metal oxide which is used to color the glass white or enhance the color of colored glasses.
  • Fondant  : A substance used to lower the melting point of the batch colors.
  • Smear of lead: Report on a sheet of paper from the network weights of stained glass restoration, obtained by pressing the paper against the seals and rubbing it with a stick of graphite for a footprint.
  • Fusing: cooking between 750 and 850 ° C of several layers of glass, a glass holder and glasses decorated for their fusion bonding.
  • Etching: surface of a piece of glass in the hydrofluoric acid treatment Devitrification; process used on the plated glass for decorative effects by contrasting colors.

Part grisaille stained glass of the life of St. Apollinaris at Chartres Cathedral (1328)
  • Gray  : vitrifiable black, brown, etc., consisting of a pigment (metal oxide) and a flux. Diluted with distilled water or vinegar, with added gum arabic to promote adhesion to glass, it is cooked between 600 and 650 ° C .
  • Cope: correct inequalities cutting, or do some re-entrant cuts, gnawing the edges of the glass with pliers.
  • Silver Yellow: Color carburizing, not requiring flux consisting of silver salts and ocher, which penetrate the surface layer of the glass and of a transparent yellow color.
  • Mastic  : linseed oil and Spanish white mixture applied under the wings of lead stained glass for sealing and rigidity of the panel.
  • Getting shot: operation of engaging the edges of each piece of glass in the grooves of lead came, and then to fold the wings against the glass before attempting to solder intersections leads.
  • Panel: strictly speaking, every part of a window defined by a metal frame.
  • Lead case: very thin lead used in restaurants to keep the fragments of a broken piece.
  • Discount Lead: partial or complete replacement of broken or damaged seals of an old stained glass with new leads.
  • Network weights: all weights of a panel or glass.
  • Sanguine family color pigment red earth declining orange, ocher, brown and beige obtained with hematite iron ore.
  • Thermoforming: cooking a piece of glass on a support raised above its melting point to give it a particular shape.
  • Trackers: metal rods used to reinforce the maintenance of the panels, attached with fasteners welded to the network weights.
  • Plated glass: the thickness is usually clear (transparent white or light-colored) blown glass and covered with a thin colored layer; This technique allows for nuances in the intensity of reds and blues in particular. This is the ideal glass for prints (see above).
  • Batch: who can acquire a glassy structure by firing.

References [ change | change the code ]


Stained Paris

Stained glass window of thechurch of Saint-Germain l'Auxerroisin Paris Louis Steinheil (1838)
  1. ↑ ( in ) RW Douglas and Susan Frank, A history of glassmaking , Henley-on-Thames: GT Foulis & Co Ltd, 1972, 213  p. ( ISBN  0854291172 )
  2. ↑ a , b and c Lise Pathé, "  The era of religious stained glass, from the fourth century to the fifteenth century [ archive ]  , "July 28, 2010
  3. ↑ Catherine Brisac The Stained Glass , Les Editions Fides, 1990 , p.  11
  4. ↑ There are rare examples of stained glass in modern times in Orthodox churches such as the Basilica of St. Isaac in St. Petersburg , dating from the xix th  century
  5. ↑ a and b [PDF] The stained glass  [ archive ]
  6. ↑ Edmond Socard Jules Pilloy, Carolingian Window of the shrine of Sery-les-Mezieres , Delesques H.,1910 , 21  p.
  7. ↑ a , b , c and d Claire König, "  The large windows Chartres, Notre Dame de Paris ...  "  [ archive ] onFutura-Sciences , October 22, 2008
  8. ↑ a , b , c and d Stained  [ archive ] on Larousse
  9. ↑ Georges Duby , p. 64-67, under the direction of Claudie Duhamel-Amado and Guy Lobrichon publisher De Boeck Superior, 1996 ( ISBN  280412049X and 9782804120498 ) .
  10. ↑ Catherine Brisac The Stained Editions Fides, 1990, p. 36-43
  11. ↑ The silver stain (painting on glass)  [ archive ]
  12. ↑ Alain Erlande-Brandenburg , issuing La Fabrique history on France Culture , January 2, 2013
  13. ↑ Catherine Arminjon Denis Lavalle, 20 centuries Cathedral , Heritage Publishing, 2001 , 527  p.
  14. ↑ Yves Miserey, "  The announced end of the windows of the Middle Ages  "  [ archive ] on Le Figaro ,July 4, 2006
  15. ↑ The lower windows, within sight rather telling moments in the life of Christ and the Saints while high have great characters (the Virgin, the apostles, etc.)
  16. ↑ Yves Combeau, "The History of Notre Dame de Paris 850 years ... and still beautiful! "On Channel Academy , December 23, 2012
  17. ↑ ( in ) Lawrence Lee, George Seddon, Francis Stephens, Stained Glass , Mitchell Beazley, 1976 (ISBN  0-600-56281-6 ) , p.  121
  18. ↑ Jean-Pierre Mohen, The Science Of Heritage: Identify, preserve, restore , Odile Jacob, 1999 ( read online [ archive ] ) , p.  72
  19. ↑ Website Henri Guerin  [ archive ]
  20. ↑ Photography  [ archive ]

See also [ edit | edit the code ]

On other Wikimedia projects:

References [ change | change the code ]

  • Glance stained glass , Arles, Editions Actes Sud, 2002
  • Architectures light, stained glass artists 1975-2000 , Paris, Editions Marval, 2000
  • collective, contemporary Enlightenment windows of xxi th  century religious architecture , Editions Gaud, 2005 ( ISBN  284080137X )
  • group under the direction of Christine Blanchet-Vaque, Stained here, stained glass also about artists , 2004
  • Stained glass and painters in Reims , Reims, 1969
    Catalog of the exhibition on contemporary stained glass. foreword by Claude Esteban recovery in Traces, figures, crossings , Galileo, 1985 under the title The Two Lights
  • Census ancient windows ( Corpus vitrearum , General Inventory of monuments and artistic treasures of France
  • Francoise Perrot and Jean Taralon, under the direction of Louis Grodecki, The windows of Paris, the Paris region of Picardie and Nord-Pas-de-Calais , Paris, Editions du CNRS , 1978
  • The windows of the Centre and Pays de la Loire , Paris, Editions du CNRS, 1981
  • The stained glass of Burgundy, Franche-Comté and Rhône-Alpes , Paris, Editions du CNRS, 1986
  • The stained glass of Champagne-Ardenne , Paris, Editions du CNRS, 1992
  • Michael Herold, Françoise Gatouillat, The windows of Lorraine and Alsace , Paris, CNRS Editions and the Ministry of Culture and Francophonie, General Inventory of monuments and artistic treasures of France, May 1994, 330  p. ( ISBN  2-271-05154-1 )
    Census ancient windows ( Corpus vitrearum , edited by the International Committee for the History of Art and the patronage of the International Academic Union. France, supplementary series, Census ancient windows of France, Volume V
  • The windows of Upper Normandy , Paris, Editions du CNRS, 2001
  • The Old Stone, The Art of painting on glass and glazing , Paris, impr. L. F. Delatour, 1774, 245  p. (notice BNF n o  FRBNF30810674 , read online )
  • Gatouillat Françoise Michel Herold, Véronique David Stained glass by thousands ... Conclusion of an inventory: identification of ancient stained glass of France , In Situ, review of heritages, 2005, n o  6 text

Related Articles [ change | change the code ]


Stained glass of Jacques Gruber , Nancy, in 1904.

Painters stained glass [ change | change the code ]

Main article: List of master glassmakers .

External links [ edit | edit the code ]

ارسال شده توسط در