مداخل مخزن الادویه عقیلی خراسانی (چهاردهم) 3

بعر. [ ب َ / ب َ ع َ ] (ع اِ) پشکل . (منتهی الارب ) (آنندراج ). سرگین شتر و گوسفند و آهو و موش بفارسی پشک گویند. (غیاث ). سرگین حیوانات است که خشک شده از هم پاشیده باشد مانند سرگین گوسفند و شتر. (فهرست مخزن الادویه ). ج ، ابعار. (منتهی الارب ) (اقرب الموارد) (دزی ج 1 ص 100) (موید الفضلاء). و رجوع به تذکره  داودضریر انطاکی ص 82 و ترجمه  فرانسوی ابن بیطار شود.

- بعر الجمل و البعیر ؛ بشیرازی پشکل اشتر خوانند. (از اختیارات بدیعی ). و رجوع به همان متن شود.

- بعر الضان ؛ بپارسی سرگین میش گویند. (از تحفه ).

- بعر الضان و بعر الکبش ؛بپارسی سرگین گوسفند و میش خوانند و بشیرازی پشکل گوسفند گویند. (اختیارات بدیعی ).

- بعرالضب ؛ بپارسی سرگین سوسمار را گویند. (از اختیارات بدیعی ) (از تحفه ) (از ذخیره  خوارزمشاهی ). رجوع به متن های مذکور شود.

- بعر الظبا ؛ پشک آهوان :

صیدگه شاه جهان را خوش چراگاهست از آنک

لخلخه  روحانیان بینی در او بعرالظبا.

خاقانی .

- بعرالمعز ؛ بپارسی سرگین بز خوانند و بشیرازی پشکل بز. (از اختیارات بدیعی ) (از تحفه ).

|| فقر تمام . (منتهی الارب ) (ناظم الاطباء) (آنندراج ).

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پشک . [ پ ِ / پ ُ ] (اِ) پشگ . پشکل . فضله  گوسفند و بزو شتر و آهو و خر و اشتر و هم از گاو آنگاه که سخت و مدور باشد. سرگین گوسفند و بز و آهو و امثال آن . پشکر. پشکره . پشکله . (برهان قاطع) (فرهنگ رشیدی ). بعر. بعره و آن فضله  حیوان باشد از ذوات الخُف و ذوات الظلف . ذَبلة. وعلة. عُرّة. (منتهی الارب )

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بعر الضب‌

بپارسی سرگین سوسمار است و پشک سوسمار نیز خوانند بهترین وی سفید بود و گرم و تیز بود برص و کلف را نافع بود و سفیدی که در چشم بود زایل کند و چشم را جلا دهد و قوت باصره بدهد و حکّه را نافع بود و بشیرازی ماترنک خوانند

بعر الماعز

بپارسی سرگین بز گویند و بشیرازی پشکل بز طبیعت آن گرم و خشک بود خنازیر را تحلیل دهد بقوت و ورم سپرز و ورم صلب را سود دارد و اگر به پشم پاره بر خود برگیرند سیلان رحم بازدارد و اگر سحق کنند و با عسل بسرشند و طلا کنند درد مفاصل را نافع بود و اگر با شراب بر گزندگی افعی ضماد کنند نافع بود و چون بسوزند و با سرکه بسرشند و بر گزندگی سگ دیوانه طلا کنند سود دهد و سرگین بز کوهی داء الثعلب را نافع بود و محلل صلابات مفاصل و ورم آن بود ... و بر استسقا در آفتاب ضماد کنند و با سرکه بر گزندگی جانوران طلا کنند سم آن را جذب کند

بعر الضان‌

بپارسی سرگین میش گویند و بشیرازی پشکل گوسپند چون با سرکه بر ثالیل ضماد کنند نافع بود و بر سوختگی آتش طلا کنند نافع بود و با روغن بر گوشت زیاده نهند نافع بود

بعر الجمل‌

بپارسی پشکل شتر گویند و چون بر ثالیل بندند و بخور کند قطع کند و خون از بینی بازدارد چون خشک کرده بسایند و بر بینی دمند چون با ادویه جهت صداع بیاشامند نافع بود و محلل خنازیر و دانه‌ها بود چون تر وی بر وی ضماد کنند درد مفاصل را نافع بود

اختیارات بدیعی

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بعر

اسم سرکین حیوانات است که خشک و از هم منفرد باشد مثل سرکین کوسفند و شتر

بعوض بق صغیر است

که بفارسی پشۀ خاکی نامند

و بعیر اسم جمل است

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Cow dung

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about cattle feces. For feces used as fertiliser, see Manure. For the English slang word, see Bullshit.

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

Drying cow dung fuel

Water buffalo dung drying on the wall of a house, Yuanyang County, Yunnan

Mound of cow dung fuel, India

Cow dung, also known as cow pats, cow pies or cow manure, is the waste product of bovine animal species. These species include domestic cattle ("cows"),bison ("buffalo"), yak, and water buffalo. Cow dung is the undigested residue of plant matter which has passed through the animal's gut. The resultant faecal matter is rich in minerals. Color ranges from greenish to blackish, often darkening soon after exposure to air.

Contents

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Uses[edit]

Cow dung, which is usually a dark brown color (usually combined with soiled bedding and urine), is often used as manure (agricultural fertilizer). If not recycled into the soil by species such as earthworms and dung beetles, cow dung can dry out and remain on the pasture, creating an area of grazing land which is unpalatable to livestock.

In many parts of the developing world, and in the past in mountain regions of Europe, caked and dried cow dung is used as fuel.

Dung may also be collected and used to produce biogas to generateelectricity and heat. The gas is rich in methane and is used in rural areas of India and Pakistan and elsewhere to provide a renewable and stable source of electricity.^[1]

In central Africa, Maasai villages have burned cow dung inside to repelmosquitos. In cold places, cow dung is used to line the walls of rustic houses as a cheap thermal insulator. Most of villagers in India spray fresh cow dung mixed with water in front of the houses to repel insects.^[2] It is also dried into cake like shapes and used as replacement for firewood.

Cow dung fuel of Bangladesh

Cow dung is also an optional ingredient in the manufacture of adobe mud brickhousing depending on the availability of materials at hand.^[3]

A deposit of cow dung is referred to in American English as a "cow chip," or less commonly "cow pie," and in British English as a "cowpat".^[4] When dry, it is used in the practice of "cow chip throwing" popularized in Beaver, Oklahoma in 1970.^[5][6] On April 21, 2001 Robert Deevers of Elgin, Oklahoma, set the record for cow chip throwing with a distance of 185 feet 5 inches.^[7]

Cow dung is also used in Hindu religious fire yajna as an important ingredient.^[8]

Ecology[edit]

Cow dung provides food for a wide range of animal and fungus species, which break it down and recycle it into the food chain and into the soil.

In areas where cattle (or other mammals with similar dung) are not native, there are often also no native species which can break down their dung, and this can lead to infestations of pests such as flies and parasitic worms. In Australia, dung beetles from elsewhere have been introduced to help recycle the cattle dung back into the soil. (see the Australian Dung Beetle Project and Dr. George Bornemissza).^[9]

Cattle have a natural aversion to feeding around their own dung. This can lead to the formation of taller ungrazed patches of heavily fertilized sward. These habitat patches, termed "islets", can be beneficial for many grassland arthropods, including spiders (Araneae) and bugs (Hemiptera). They have an important function in maintaining biodiversity in heavily utilized pastures.^[10]

Variants[edit]

A buffalo chip, also called a meadow muffin, is the name for a large, flat, dried piece of dung deposited by the American bison. Well dried buffalo chips were among the few things that could be collected and burned on the prairie and were used by the Plains Indians, settlers and pioneers, and homesteaders as a source of cooking heat and warmth.

Bison dung is sometimes referred to by the name nik-nik. This word is a borrowing from the Sioux language (which probably originally borrowed it from a northern source). In modern Sioux, nik-nik can refer to the feces of any bovine, including domestic cattle. It has also come to be used, especially in Lakota, to refer to lies or broken promises (especially by the U.S. government), analogously to the vulgar English term "bullshit" as a figure of speech.

See also[edit]

·         Biomass briquettes

·         Chicken manure

·         Coprophilous fungi

·         Dry animal dung fuel

·         Imigongo

·         Sigri (stove) stove fueled with dried cow dung

References[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cow dung fuel.

1.     Jump up^ "Cow dung – a source of green energy". denmark.dk. Retrieved 14 February2015.

2.     Jump up^http://www.ilri.org/biometrics/Publication/Full%20Text/cattle%20keeping%20Orma%20people.pdf

3.     Jump up^ Your Home Technical Manual - 3.4d Construction Systems - Mud Brick (Adobe)

4.     Jump up^ "Cowpat - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 14 February2015.

5.     Jump up^ "Cow Chip Throwing Capital of the World". RoadsideAmerica.com. Retrieved 14 February 2015.

6.     Jump up^ [1]

7.     Jump up^ [2]

8.     Jump up^ http://ayurveda-sedona.com/knowledge-center/spirituality/holy-cow/

9.     Jump up^ Bornemissza, G. F. (1976), The Australian dung beetle project 1965-1975, Australian Meat Research Committee Review 30:1-30

10.  Jump up^ Dittrich, A. D. K. and Helden A. J. 2012. Experimental sward islets: the effect of dung and fertilisation on Hemiptera and Araneae. Insect Conservation and Diversity 5:46-56.

Categories: 

·         Animal physiology

·         Cattle products

·         Fuels

·         Feces

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بغرا

بضم باء موحده و سکون غین معجمه و فتح راء مهمله و الف

ماهیت ان

از جملۀ اغذیۀ اهل خراسان است که از آرد کندم خمیر کرده و بر تختۀ پهن کرده و بقدر درهم ها بریده ترتیب می دهند بدین نحو که در آب یختی و یا قلیه می ریزند تا خوب پخته کردد پس چاشنی سرکه یا دوشاب یا آب لیمو با قند و یا آب غوره و یا کشک و یا ماست و یا امثال اینها داخل کرده و یکدو جوشی دیکر داده فرود آورده تناول می نمایند

طبیعت ان

 کرم مائل باعتدال است

افعال و خواص آن

مشهی و مسکن قئ صفراوی و التهاب و تشنکی و مقوی بدن و مفتح سده و مصلح حال کرده و صاحبان ریاضت و مولد خون صالح و بطئ الهضم و مولد ریاح است و مصلح آن دارچینی است و آش ماهیچه که آش برک نامند در جمیع افعال و خواص مانند آنست و آش رشته که خمیر آن را باریک و طولانی می برند و بدستور طبخ می دهند نیز مثل آنست.

مخزن الادویه عقیلی خراسانی

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بغل . [ ب َ ] (ع اِ) در عربی استر را گویند که از جمله  دواب مشهور است . (برهان ). بمعنی استر نر که بهندی آنرا خچر گویند. (آنندراج ). استر. (ترجمان علامه جرجانی ص 27). قاطر. ج ، بِغال . بمعنی استر که بهندی آنرا خچر گویند و آن از خر نر و اسپ ماده پیدا میشود. (غیاث ). استر نر و قاطر. ج ، بِغال ، ابغال . (ناظم الاطباء). استر نر. ج ، بغال . (منتهی الارب ). حیوانی که نامهای دیگرش استر و قاطر است در این صورت عربی است . (فرهنگ نظام ). حیوانی اهلی است مخصوص سواری و بار، پدرش خر و مادرش اسب باشد و بر هر حیوانی که پدرش از جنسی و مادرش از جنس دیگر باشد نیز اطلاق گردد. تانیث آن بغلة. ج ، بغال ، ابغال . (از اقرب الموارد). لغت عربی است بفارسی استر و بهندی خجر نامند. حیوانی است که از نزدیکی اسب و الاغ تولید مییابد بدانچه که پدر آن الاغ و مادر آن مادیان باشد بهتر است و نادر بعمل می آید آنچه مادر آن الاغ و پدر آن اسب باشد از آن پست تر و کثیرالوجود و این حیوان تاب مشقت و باربرداری و سواری و اسفار زیاده از اسب و الاغ دارد و خوش رفتار میباشد. (از مخزن الادویه ). و آنرا به دیگر زبان ها اسریدون گویند. (تذکره  داود ضریر انطاکی ) :

جز بر اسب علم و بغل جستجوی

خلق نتواند گذشتن زین عقاب .

ناصرخسرو.

و رجوع به تذکره  داود ضریر انطاکی شود.

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بغل

بفتح با و سکون غین معجمه و لام در آخر لغت عربی است بفارسی استر و بهندی خچر نامند

ماهیت ان

حیوانی است که از نزدیکی اسپ و الاغ تولید می یابد آنچه که پدر آن الاغ و مادر آن مادیان باشد بهتر است و نادر بعمل می آید آنچه مادر آن الاغ و پدر آن اسب باشد از ان پست تر و کثیر الوجود و این حیوان تاب مشقت و باربرداری و سواری و اسفار زیاده از اسپ و الاغ دارد و خوشرفتار می باشد خصوص خوب آن

ص: 429

طبیعت ان

در سوم کرم و خشک

افعال و خواص آن

کوشت آن جهت درد مفاصل و پیه آن مسکن نقرس و عرق النسا و چون با روغن زیتون دل آن را طبخ دهند و سه روز هر روز چهار مثقال با آب عصی الراعی بنوشد مرد را عقیم می کرداند و چون زن بعد از ظهر بلافاصله سه روز هر روز سه مثقال جکر آن را بخورد منع حمل او نماید و بدستور دل آن و بدستور بول آن را چون بیاشامند نیز مسقط آنست و موی آن و فرزجه و چرک کوش آن نیز همین خاصیت دارد و بخور سم آن مسقط مشیمه و کریزانندۀ هوام است و همچنین بخور زبل و موی آن کریزانندۀ هوام است و پنج درهم سم آن را با روغن مورد ممزوج کرده بهرجا که مو ریخته باشد بمالند مو برویاند

و داء الثعلب را زائل کرداند و با خود داشتن پوست آن مسقط جنین است و اکر حامله نباشد مانع حمل است و خوردن آن جهت تسکین قولنج نافع و چون ذکر آن را با مازو بکوبند و در زیت طبخ نمایند و بر مو بمالند مو را سیاه و دراز کرداند و مجرب دانسته اند و ذکر الاغ نیز همین اثر دارد و لیکن ضعیف تر است از ان

مخزن الادویه عقیلی خراسانی

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قاطر ( در متون طب سنتی بغل که نام عربی آن باشد) یا اَستَر یا خراسب حیوانی است که از جفت‌گیری خر نر و اسب ماده ایجاد می‌شود. قاطر یک گونه به حساب نمی‌آید زیرا توانایی تولید مثل را ندارد و برای به وجود آوردن قاطر دیگری باید حتماً یک خر نر را با یک اسب ماده آمیزش داد. این حیوان معمولاً به عنوان بارکش استفاده می‌شده‌است. جثه قاطرها معمولاً از خرها بزرگ تر بوده و سری بزرگ و کشیده با گوش‌های نسبتاً بلند دارد. توانایی جسمی و مقاومت آن در برابر بیماری‌ها به مراتب از خرها بیشتر است.[۲]

واژه اَستَر ریشه در زبان سانسکریت دارد که به صورت اسوتره ادا می‌شده که جزء اول آن (اسو) بمعنی اسب است.[۲] در برخی گویش‌های ایرانی از آن جمله گویش تاتی عمارلو به این جانور مول می گویند.

شبه اسب گونه‌ای دیگر از چهارپایان است که از جفتگیری اسب نر و خر ماده بوجود می‌آید.

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به عربی بغل:

البغل (من الكلمة الحبشية "بَقْل"؛[1] በቅሎ بالأمهرية)[2] هو حيوان هجين ينتجه تزاوج فرس والحمار اكتسب العديد من صفاتهما المميزة ؛ فللبغل صبر الحمارة وقوة الفرس. وللبغال عامة مقاومة عالية للأمراض ولكنه عقيم ولا يمكنها التناسل.

البغال حيوانات قوية العضلات صغيرة الجسم سريعة الحركة تستعمل في الركوب والجر, وأفضل البغال صنفا هي البغال القبرصية.

للبغال استخدامات خاصة في الجيوش حيث لا يخلو جيش من سرية جبلية للبغال تقوم بمساعدة القوات المسلحة في حمل الأحمال الثقيلة في المناطق الجبيلية ذات الطرق غير السالكة والتي قد تصعب حتى على أحدث وسائل النقل العسكرية الحديثة.

بغل رمادي

تتصف البغال بالعناد فيقال "عنيد كالبغل". وعندما يقسو عليها سائسها وهي سائرة في أعالي الجبال ترمي بحملها وتنتحر رامية بنفسها من فوق الجبل.

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به پنجابی خچر:

خچر اک دوغلا جانور اے جیہڑہ گھوڑی تے کھوتے دے ملاپ نال بنایا جاندا اے۔ خچر نوں بؤتا تکڑا، صبروالا، تیز، سیانا تے ترکھا ٹرنوالا منیا جاندا اے تے کھوتے نالوں ایہدی عمر وی زیادھ منی گئی اے۔

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به اردو خچر:

ایک جفاکش چوپایہ جو باربرداری کے کام آتا ہے۔ گھوڑی اور گدھے کے اختلاط سے پیدا ہوتا ہے۔ باربرداری کے لیے زمانہ قدیم سے کام کر رہا ہے۔ فوجی ٹرک کی ایجاد سے قبل تک فوجوں میں خچر کو بڑی اہمیت حاصل تھی۔ پہلی جنگ عظیم میں خچر سے بہت سے کام لیے گئے۔ ان کی افزائشِ نسل کے لیے انگریزی دور میں ہندوستان میں خاص قسم کے فارم مقرر تھے۔ مزید برآں زمینداروں کو ان کی افزائشِ نسل کے لئے معربے دیے جاتے تھے۔ جنھیں گھوڑی پال مربعے کہتے تھے۔ یہ زمیندار حکومت کے لیے خچر مہیا کرتے تھے۔

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به عبری:

פרד (שם מדעי: Equus mulus) הוא בן-כלאיים של זיווג חמור עם סוסה (פרד כזה נקרא באנגלית Mule) או של אתון עם סוס (Hinny). הפרד עקר אף כי יש לו את כל סימני המין החיצוניים. פרד ממין נקבה נקרא פרדה.

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به زازاکی قاطر:

Qatır yew heywanê de baranteno.

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به آذری قاطر:

Qatır — atla uzunqulağı cütləşdirməklə əldə edilmiş, təsərrüfatda mühüm əhəmiyyət kəsb etmiş, əhliləşdirilmiş heyvan.

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به ترکی کاتیر:

Katır, (Equus mulus) erkek eşek ile dişi atın (kısrak) çiftleşmesiyle meydana gelen ve çoğu kez kısır olan melezhayvandır. Erkek at (aygır) ile dişi eşek çiftleşirse bardo veya ester denen, at görünümünde ama eşek iriliğinde bir melez ortaya çıkar. Bardo, attan çok katıra benzer ancak eşeğin bütün zayıflıklarını taşır. Bardo, katırdan daha az dayanıklı olduğu için seyrek olarak yetiştirilir.

Katırlar, kısır hayvanlar olmalarına rağmen dünyada yaklaşık 60 katırın doğum yaptığı tespit edilmiştir.^[1]

Katırlar attan küçük, eşekten büyük ve kuvvetli, bazı atlardan (Tersk gibi) daha kuvvetlidir. Ancak Amerikan Standardbred'i gibi büyük Marshall atları kadar kuvvetli değildir. Bu hayvanlar bilindiğinin aksine bozuk yollarda eşekten daha az kullanışlıdır.

Katırın inatçı ve biniciye zorluk çıkarması efsanesi ise pek doğru değildir, katırların binicinin güvenliğini sağlayanreflekslerde bulunduğu görülmüştür.

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Mule

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Mule (disambiguation).

Mule
Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Perissodactyla
Family:	Equidae
Genus:	Equus
Species:	Equus asinus x Equus caballus
Binomial name
None Most mules are sterile. Sterile hybrids are not species in their own right.
Synonyms
Equus mulus

A Grey Mule of Kentucky

A mule is the offspring of a male donkey (jack) and a female horse(mare).^[1] Horses and donkeys are different species, with different numbers of chromosomes. Of the two F1 hybrids between these two species, a mule is easier to obtain than a hinny, which is the offspring of afemale donkey (jenny) and a male horse (stallion).

The size of a mule and work to which it is put depend largely on the breeding of the mule's female parent (dam). Mules can be lightweight, medium weight, or when produced from draft horse mares, of moderately heavy weight.^[2]:85–87 Mules are more patient, hardy and long-lived than horses, and are less obstinate and more intelligent than donkeys.^[3]:5

Contents

  [show] 

Biology[edit]

The mule is valued because, while it has the size and ground-covering ability of its dam, it is stronger than a horse of similar size and inherits the endurance and disposition of the donkey sire, tending to require less food than a horse of similar size. Mules also tend to be more independent than most domesticated equines other than the donkey.

The median weight range for a mule is between about 370 and 460 kg (820 and 1,000 lb).^[4] While a few mules can carry live weight up to 160 kg (353 lb), the superiority of the mule becomes apparent in their additional endurance.^[5]

In general, a mule can be packed with dead weight of up to 20% of its body weight, or approximately 90 kg (198 lb).^[5] Although it depends on the individual animal, it has been reported that mules trained by the Army of Pakistan can carry up to 72 kilograms (159 lb) and walk 26 kilometres (16.2 mi) without resting.^[6] The average equine in general can carry up to approximately 30% of its body weight in live weight, such as a rider.^[7]

A female mule that has estrus cycles and thus, in theory, could carry a fetus, is called a "molly" or "Molly mule," though the term is sometimes used to refer to female mules in general. Pregnancy is rare, but can occasionally occur naturally as well as through embryo transfer. A male mule is properly called ahorse mule, though often called a john mule, which is the correct term for a gelded mule. A young male mule is called amule colt, and a young female is called a mule filly.^[8]

Characteristics[edit]

A gray mule

With its short thick head, long ears, thin limbs, small narrow hooves, and shortmane, the mule shares characteristics of a donkey. In height and body, shape of neck and rump, uniformity of coat, and teeth, it appears horse-like. The mule comes in all sizes, shapes andconformations. There are mules that resemble huge draft horses, sturdy quarter horses, fine-boned racing horses, shaggy ponies and more.

The mule is an example of hybrid vigor.^[9] Charles Darwin wrote: "The mule always appears to me a most surprising animal. That a hybrid should possess more reason, memory, obstinacy, social affection, powers of muscular endurance, and length of life, than either of its parents, seems to indicate that art has here outdone nature."^[10]

The mule inherits from its sire the traits of intelligence, sure-footedness, toughness, endurance, disposition, and natural cautiousness. From its dam it inherits speed, conformation, and agility.^[11]:5–6,8 Mules exhibit a higher cognitive intelligence than their parent species. This is also believed to be the result of hybrid vigor, similar to how mules acquire greater height and endurance than either parent.^[12]

Ancient Greek rhyton in the shape of a mule's head, made by Brygos, early 5th century BC. Jérôme Carcopino Museum, Department of Archaeology, Aleria

Handlers of working animals generally find mules preferable to horses: mules show more patience under the pressure of heavy weights, and their skin is harder and less sensitive than that of horses, rendering them more capable of resisting sun and rain. Their hooves are harder than horses', and they show a natural resistance to disease and insects. Many North American farmers withclay soil found mules superior as plow animals.

A mule does not sound exactly like a donkey or a horse. Instead, a mule makes a sound that is similar to a donkey's but also has the whinnying characteristics of a horse (often starts with a whinny, ends in a hee-haw). Mules sometimes whimper.

Color and size variety[edit]

Mules come in a variety of shapes, sizes and colors, from minis under 50 lb (23 kg) to maxis over 1,000 lb (454 kg), and in many different colors. The coats of mules come in the same varieties as those of horses. Common colors are sorrel, bay, black, and grey. Less common are white, roans (both blue and red),palomino, dun, and buckskin. Least common are paint mules or tobianos. Mules from Appaloosa mares produce wildly colored mules, much like their Appaloosa horse relatives, but with even wilder skewed colors. The Appaloosa color is produced by a complex of genes known as the Leopard complex (Lp). Mares homozygous for the Lp gene bred to any color donkey will produce an Appaloosa colored mule.

A mule battery in the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1879–1880). Sepoys are sitting by the larger field guns.

Distribution and use[edit]

Mules historically were used by armies to transport supplies, occasionally as mobile firing platforms for smaller cannons, and to pull heavier field guns with wheels over mountainous trails such as in Afghanistan during the Second Anglo-Afghan War.^[13]

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) reports that Chinawas the top market for mules in 2003, closely followed by Mexico and manyCentral and South American nations.

Fertility[edit]

Mules and hinnies have 63 chromosomes, a mixture of the horse's 64 and the donkey's 62. The different structure and number usually prevents the chromosomes from pairing up properly and creating successful embryos, rendering most mules infertile.

There are no recorded cases of fertile mule stallions. A few mare mules have produced offspring when mated with a purebred horse or donkey.^[14][15] Herodotus gives an account of such an event as an ill omen of Xerxes' invasion of Greece in 480 BC: "There happened also a portent of another kind while he was still at Sardis,—a mule brought forth young and gave birth to a mule" (Herodotus The Histories 7:57), and a mule's giving birth was a frequently recorded portent in antiquity, although scientific writers also doubted whether the thing was really possible (see e.g. Aristotle,Historia animalium, 6.24; Varro, De re rustica, 2.1.28).

As of October 2002, there had been only 60 documented cases of mules birthing foals since 1527.^[15] In China in 2001, a mare mule produced a filly.^[16] In Morocco in early 2002 and Colorado in 2007, mare mules produced colts.^[15][17][18]Blood and hair samples from the Colorado birth verified that the mother was indeed a mule and the foal was indeed her offspring.^[18]

A 1939 article in the Journal of Heredity describes two offspring of a fertile mare mule named "Old Bec", which was owned at the time by the A&M College of Texas (now Texas A&M University) in the late 1920s. One of the foals was a female, sired by a jack. Unlike its mother, it was sterile. The other, sired by a five-gaited Saddlebred stallion, exhibited no characteristics of any donkey. That horse, a stallion, was bred to several mares, which gave birth to live foals that showed no characteristics of the donkey.^[19]

An "Appaloosa" mule

Modern mules[edit]

In the second half of the 20th century, widespread usage of mules declined in industrialized countries. The use of mules for farming and transportation of agricultural products largely gave way to modern tractorsand trucks. However, in the United States, a dedicated number of mule breeders continued the tradition as a hobby and continued breeding the great lines of American Mammoth Jacks started in the United States byGeorge Washington with the gift from the King of Spain of two Zamorano-Leonés donkeys. These hobby breeders began to utilize better mares for mule production until today's modern saddle mule emerged. Exhibition shows where mules pulled heavy loads have now been joined with mules competing in Western and English pleasure riding, as well as dressage and show jumping competition. There is now a cable TV show dedicated to the training of donkeys and mules. Mules, once snubbed at traditional horse shows, have been accepted for competition at the most exclusive horse shows in the world in all disciplines.

Mules are still used extensively to transport cargo in rugged roadless regions, such as the large wilderness areas of California's Sierra Nevada mountains or the Pasayten Wilderness of northern Washington state. Commercial pack mules are used recreationally, such as to supply mountaineering base camps, and also to supply trail building and maintenance crews, and backcountry footbridge building crews.^[20] As of July 2014, there are at least sixteen commercial mule pack stations in business in the Sierra Nevada.^[21] The Angeles chapter of the Sierra Club has a Mule Pack Section that organizes hiking trips with supplies carried by mules.^[22]

Amish farmers, who reject tractors and most other modern technology for religious reasons, commonly use teams of six or eight mules to pull plows, disk harrows, and other farm equipment, though they use horses for pulling buggies on the road.

A British mule train during the Second Anglo-Boer War, South Africa

During the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the United States used large numbers of mules to carry weapons and supplies over Afghanistan's rugged terrain to the mujahideen.^[23] Use of mules by U.S. forces has continued during the War in Afghanistan (2001-present), and the United States Marine Corps has conducted an 11-day Animal Packers Course since the 1960s at its Mountain Warfare Training Centerlocated in the Sierra Nevada near Bridgeport, California.

Mule train[edit]

Mules provide bulk transport almost anywhere.

A 'mule train' is a connected or unconnected line of 'pack mules', usually carrying cargo. Because of the mule's ability to carry as much as a horse, their trait of being sure footed along with their tolerance of poorer coarser foods and abilities to tolerate arid terrains, Mule trains were common caravan organized means of animal powered bulk transport back into pre-classical times. In many climate and circumstantial instances, an equivalent string of pack horses would have to carry more fodder and sacks of high energy grains such as oats, so could carry less cargo. In modern times, strings of sure footed mules have been used to carry riders in dangerous but scenic back country terrain such as excursions into canyons.

Pack trains were instrumental in opening up the American West as the sure footed animals could carry up to 250 pounds, survive on rough forage,^[a] did not require feed, and could operate in the arid higher elevations of the Rockies, serving as the main cargo means to the west from Missouri during the heyday of the North American fur trade.^[b] Their use antedated the move west into the Rockies as colonial Americans sent out the first fur trappers and explorers past the Appalachians who were then followed west by high risk taking settlers by the 1750s (such as Daniel Boone) who lead an increasing flood of emigrants that began pushing west over the into southern New York, and through the gaps of the Allegheny into the Ohio Country (the lands of western Province of Virginia and the Province of Pennsylvania), into Tennessee and Kentucky before and especially after the American Revolution.

Mule trains have been used as working (as opposed to tourist attractions) portions of transportation links as recently as 2005 by the World Food Programme.^[24]

In the nineteenth century, Twenty-mule teams, for instance, were teams of eighteen mules and two horses attached to large wagons that ferried borax out of Death Valley from 1883 to 1889. The wagons were among the largest ever pulled by draft animals, designed to carry 10 short tons (9 metric tons) of borax ore at a time.^[25]

·         WW-II British Army pack Mule Train in Italy

·          

·        

·         Working mule train, Nicaragua 1957-1961

·        

·         1911 mule train in British Columbia

·        

·         Grand Canyon on the South Kaibab trail

·        

·         1868 mule train fording the Fraser River

·         St. Gotthard Pass, Switzerland about 1800

·          

Mule clone[edit]

In 2003, researchers at University of Idaho and Utah State University produced the first mule clone as part of Project Idaho.^[26] The research team included Gordon Woods, professor of animal and veterinary science at the University of Idaho; Kenneth L. White, Utah State University professor of animal science; and Dirk Vanderwall, University of Idaho assistant professor of animal and veterinary science. The baby mule, Idaho Gem, was born May 4. It was the first clone of a hybrid animal. Veterinary examinations of the foal and its surrogate mother showed them to be in good health soon after birth. The foal's DNA comes from a fetal cell culture first established in 1998 at the University of Idaho.

Gallery[edit]

·        

A pair of mules working a plowing exhibition at the Farnsley-Moreman House in Louisville, Kentucky (2005)

·        

Mule moving goods in the car-free Medina quarter in Fez, Morocco(2006)

·        

Mules carrying slate roof tiles, Dharamsala, India(1993)

See also[edit]

·         African wild ass ·         Colby White Mules, a college mascot ·         Forty acres and a mule ·         No Mule's Fool ·         Headless Mule, a cursed woman in Brazilian folklore ·         Horse

·         Hinny, the reciprocal cross to the mule ·         Jennet, a small Spanish horse ·         Kiang, the Tibetan ass ·         Onager, the Asiatic wild ass

Notes[edit]

1.     Jump up^ rough forage means Mules, Donkeys, and other asses, like many wild ungulates such as various deer species, can tolerate eating small shrubs, lichens and some branch ladened tree foliages and obtaining nutrition from such. In contrast, the digestive system of horses and to a lesser extent cattle are more dependent upon grasses, and evolved in climates where grasslands involved stands of grains and their high energy seed heads.

2.     Jump up^ The influence and effect of fur trading, especially for Beaver pelts between 1500-1940 is hard to understand these days when there are dozens of optional synthetic fabrics added to the repertoire of natural fiber materials. Many of the latter would only become widely available through the development of machinery processing (Cotton Gin, Spinning Jenny, etc.) making their use economical and widespread. The waterproofing wearing Beaver hats and coats was valuable in the days when transportation measured the six miles per hour of horsebacked travel as rapid transit.

References[edit]

1.     Jump up^ "Mule Day: A Local Legacy". americaslibrary.gov. Library of Congress. 2013-12-18. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

2.     Jump up^ Ensminger, M. E. (1990). Horses and Horsemanship: Animal Agriculture Series (Sixth ed.). Danville, IL: Interstate. ISBN 0-8134-2883-1.

3.     Jump up^ Jackson, Louise A (2004). The Mule Men: A History of Stock Packing in the Sierra Nevada. Missoula, MT: Mountain Press.ISBN 0-87842-499-7.

4.     Jump up^ "Mule". The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General. XVII. Henry G. Allen and Company. 1888. p. 15. External link in |title= (help)

5.     ^ Jump up to:^a b "Hunter's Specialties: More With Wayne Carlton On Elk Hunting". hunterspec.com. Hunter's Specialties. 2009. Archivedfrom the original on 2010-10-08. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

6.     Jump up^ Khan, Aamer Ahmed (2005-10-19). "Beasts ease burden of quake victims". BBC. Retrieved 2010-04-06.

7.     Jump up^ American Endurance Ride Conference (November 2003). "Chapter 3, Section IV: Size". Endurance Rider's Handbook. AERC. Retrieved 2008-08-07.

8.     Jump up^ "Longear Lingo". lovelongears.com. American Donkey and Mule Society. 2013-05-22. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

9.     Jump up^ Chen, Z. Jeffrey; Birchler, James A., eds. (2013). Polyploid and Hybrid Genomics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-96037-0. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

10.  Jump up^ Darwin, Charles (1879). What Mr. Darwin Saw in His Voyage Round the World in the Ship 'Beagle'. New York: Harper & Bros. pp. 33–34. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

11.  Jump up^ Hauer, John, ed. (2014). The Natural Superiority of Mules. Skyhorse. ISBN 978-1-62636-166-9. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

12.  Jump up^ Proops, Leanne; Faith Burden; Britta Osthaus (2008-07-18). "Mule cognition: a case of hybrid vigor?" (PDF). Animal Cognition. 12 (1): 75–84. doi:10.1007/s10071-008-0172-1. PMID 18636282. Retrieved 2008-08-10.

13.  Jump up^ Caption of Mule Battery WDL11495.png Library of Congress

14.  Jump up^ Savory, Theodore H (1970). "The Mule". Scientific American. 223 (6): 102–109. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1270-102.

15.  ^ Jump up to:^a b c Kay, Katty (2002-10-02). "Morocco's miracle mule". BBC News. Retrieved 2009-02-05.

16.  Jump up^ Rong, Ruizhang; Cai, Huedi; Yang, Xiuqin; Wei, Jun (October 1985). "Fertile mule in China and her unusual foal" (PDF).Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. National Center for Biotechnology Information. 78 (10): 821–25. PMC 1289946.PMID 4045884. Retrieved 13 July 2014.

17.  Jump up^ "Befuddling Birth: The Case of the Mule's Foal". National Public Radio. 2007-07-26. Retrieved 2009-02-05.

18.  ^ Jump up to:^a b Lofholm, Nancy (2007-09-19). "Mule's foal fools genetics with 'impossible' birth". Denver Post.

19.  Jump up^ Anderson, W. S. (1939). "Fertile Mare Mules". Journal of Heredity. 30 (12): 549–551. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

20.  Jump up^ Jackson, Louise A (2004). The Mule Men: A History of Stock Packing in the Sierra Nevada. Missoula, MT: Mountain Press.ISBN 0-87842-499-7.

21.  Jump up^ "Members of the Eastern Sierra Packers". easternsierrapackers.com. Eastern Sierra Packers. 2009-01-18. Retrieved2014-07-16.

22.  Jump up^ "Mule Pack Section, Angeles Chapter, Sierra Club". angeles.sierraclub.org. Angeles Chapter Sierra Club. 2014-04-18. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

23.  Jump up^ Bearden, Milt (2003) The Main Enemy, The Inside story of the CIA's Final showdown with the KGB. Presidio Press. ISBN 0345472500

24.  Jump up^ "Mule train provides lifeline for remote quake survivors". www.wfp.org. World Food Programme.

25.  Jump up^ "Mules hauling a 22,000lb boiler". Texas State Library and Archives Commission.

26.  Jump up^ "Project Idaho". University of Idaho. 2003-05-29. Archived from the original on 2009-08-09. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

Sources

·          This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "^{article name needed}". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Further reading

·         Arnold, Watson C. "The Mule: The Worker that 'Can't Get No Respect,'" Southwestern Historical Quarterly (2008) 112#1 pp: 34-50. online

·         Buchholz, Katharina (2013-08-16). "Colorado miracle mule foal lived short life, but was well-loved". Denver Post. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

·         Ellenberg, George B. Mule South to Tractor South: Mules, Machines, and the Transformation of the Cotton South(University of Alabama Press. 2007) 219pp * Chandley, A. C.; Clarke, C. A. (1985). "Cum mula peperit". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 78 (10): 800–801. PMC 1289943. PMID 4045882.

·         Loftus, Bill (August 2003). "It's a Mule: UI produces first equine clone". Here We Have Idaho: The University of Idaho Magazine. University of Idaho: 12–15. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

·         Lukach, Mark (2013-09-11). "There Is a Man Wandering Around California With 3 Mules". The Atlantic. Atlantic Monthly Group. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

·         Rong, R.; Chandley, A. C.; Song, J.; McBeath, S.; Tan, P. P.; Bai, Q.; Speed, R. M. (1988). "A fertile mule and hinny in China". Cytogenetic and Genome Research. 47 (3): 134–9. doi:10.1159/000132531. PMID 3378453.

·         Williams, John O; Speelman, Sanford R (1948). "Mule production". Farmers' Bulletin. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1341. Retrieved 2014-07-16. Hosted by the UNT Digital Library. Originally published by the U.S. Government Printing Office.

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Mule (category)

Look up mule in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

·         Mule at Encyclopædia Britannica

·         American Donkey and Mule Society

·         American Mule Association

·         British Mule Society

·         Canadian Donkey & Mule Association

·         Western Mule Magazine

[show] ·         v ·         t ·         e Mammal hybrids

[show] ·         v ·         t ·         e Species of the genus Equus

[show] ·         v ·         t ·         e Equine
Authority control	·         GND: 4272518-5 ·         HDS: 26237 ·         NDL: 00569242

Categories: 

·         Domesticated animals

·         Livestock

·         Mules

·         Livestock guardians

·         Equid hybrids

·         Pack animals

&&&&&&&

بق . [ ب َق ق ] (ع ص ، اِ) رجل لق بق ؛ مرد بسیارگوی . (ناظم الاطباء) (موید الفضلاء) (منتهی الارب ). رجل لق بق ، مثل لقلاق بقباق ؛ یعنی مکثار و پرگوی . (از اقرب الموارد). و رجوع به بقباق شود. || سختی . || پیکر. (موید الفضلاء). || ج ِ بقة. (ناظم الاطباء) (منتهی الارب ). یکی آن : بقة*. (از اقرب الموارد). رجوع به بقة شود. || بق الحیطان ؛ ساس . (ناظم الاطباء). || پشه که از حشرات پردار است . (فرهنگ نظام ). پشه ، گاهی در فارسی بضرورت نظم بتخفیف می آرند. (آنندراج ) (غیاث ). پشه  بزرگ . الواحد، بقة. ج ، بقون . (مهذب الاسماء). بعوض . (دزی ج 1 ص 102). بعوض . ناموس . فسافس . (تذکره  داود ضریر انطاکی ). و رجوع به همان متن شود. بعربی ناموس و بفارسی پشه و بهندی مچهر نامند و اهل مصر و یمن و حجاز کَتّان و اهل عمان و بحرین و لحسا و قطیف ضَمْج ْ گویند. (مخزن الادویه )

* بقة. [ ب َ ق ْ ق َ ] (ع اِ) پشه ، و منه المثل : اصغر من عین بقة. (منتهی الارب ) (از ناظم الاطباء) (آنندراج ). رجوع به بَق َّ و (زمخشری ) شود. || شپش پهنا سرخ بدبو. ج ، بَق َّ. || زن بسیاراولاد. (منتهی الارب ) (ناظم الاطباء) (آنندراج ).

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بق

بفتح باء موحده و سکون قاف بعربی ناموس و بفارسی پشه و بهندی مچهر نامند و اهل مصر و یمن و حجاز کتان بضم کاف و تشدید تاء مثناه فوقانیه و اهل عمان یمامه و بحرین و لحسا و قطیف ضمج بفتح ضاد معجمه و سکون میم و جیم کویند

ص: 437

ماهیت آن

بدانکه درین اختلاف است از کلام صاحب قاموس که البقه البعوضه و هی دویبه مفرطحه حمراء منتنه و البعضوضه بالضم دویبه کالخنفساء و هی دویبه سوداء و از کلام شیخ داؤد انطاکی که البق له اسم یقع عند ناطی البعوضه اعنی الناموس و هو غلط و الصحیح انه الفسافس و یعرف بالشام و المصر بالبق و هو حیوان احمر و راسه اسود و له ارجل اربع صغار سریع الحرکه یتولد فی الامکنه الحاره زمن الصیف بالخشب و الحصر و الاراضی العفنه معلوم می کردد که غیر پشه است بلکه حیوانی است که بفارسی شب کز و سرخک و بهندی کهنمل نامند و از کلام صاحب مجمع البحرین که البعوضه بالفتح واحده البعوض الذی هو صغار البق و اشتقاقها من البعض لانها کبعض البقه و هی علی خلقه الفیل الا انها اکثر اعضاء فان للفیل اربعه ارجل و خرطوما و ذنبا و لها مع هذه الاعضاء رجلان زائدتان و اربعه اجنحه و خرطوم الفیل مصمت و خرطومها مجوف فاذا طعنت به جسد الانسان استقی الدم و قذفت به الی جوفها فهو لها کالبلعوم و الحلقوم و از کلام صاحب تحفه نیز پشه معلوم می شود و این درست است و آن اشتباه است و منشای اشتباه اطلاق بق است بر فسافس* در بعضی لغات و آن دو نوع است بزرک و کوچک بزرک آن بهیأتی است که صاحب مجمع البحرین نوشته و این را بق و ناموس نامند و کوچک آن را بعوض و در نی زارها و بیشهای پر آب و کیاه نوع بزرک آن بسیار می باشد و کزنده و با سمیت و کوچک آن در جاهای تاریک و پای دیوارهای نمناک و سمیت این از ان کمتر و لیکن صاحب تحفه بتبعیت شیخ داؤد اکثر خواص فسافس را در بق ذکر نموده بدانکه خرطوم فیل مصمت نیست بلکه مجوف و بجای بینی آنست آب و مائعات را بدم در ان می کشد و آن را پیچیده در دهان خود ریخته می خورد

* فسافس . [ ] (اِ) به فارسی ساس** نامند. حیوانی است بشکل عدس و بسیار بدبوی و در مزاج قریب به ذراریح ... (تحفه  حکیم مومن ). رجوع به ساس شود.

** ساس . (اِ) نام کرمی است از مقوله  کیک و شپش فاما از آنها بزرگتر باشد، و خون مردم بخورد و چون آن را بگیرند دست را بدبوی سازد. (جهانگیری ) (برهان ). کرم بدبو که در چهار پای باشد. (غیاث ). بزبان دارالمرز و گیلان کرمک خرد که خون مکد. (رشیدی ). بزبان دری تبری جانوری سیاه از قبیل کیک و شپش که در لباس و چوب پیدا شود. (انجمن آرا) (آنندراج ). در اصفهان آن را سرخک نامند. (فرهنگ نظام ). به هندی آن را کتمل خوانند. (جهانگیری ) (برهان ) (رشیدی ) (شعوری ). به دکنی مکَن گویند. (برهان ) (رشیدی ). بیشتر در بلاد مرطوب پیدا میشود. (فرهنگ نظام ). حشره ای ببزرگی عدس سرخ رنگ و سخت گنده و بدبو که در درز در و دیوار و چین متکا و میان اوراق کتاب و امثال آن جای گیرد و تخم گذارد و بسیار شود و چون پشه و کیک گزد و جای گزیدگی آن سخت آماسد و سخت خارد چندین روز. تخته  بید. حشره  چوب . غسک . سرخک . شب گز. غریب گز. در یادداشتهای علامه محمد قزوینی آمده : «ساس »، بمعنی حشره  کوچک معروف ، عربی فصیح است ، قال فی اللسان «السوس و الساس لغتان و هما العثة التی تقع فی الصوف و الثیاب و الطعام ... و ساست الشاة کثر قملها». پس معلوم میشود که اصل ساس بمعنی عموم کرم کوچک حبوبات و «بید» جامه های پشمینه و شپشه  حیوانات و امثالها بوده است و سپس این معنی عام در طی استعمال فارسی زبانان اندکی تخصص یافته و بر یک نوع مخصوصی از انواع کرم و شپشه و بید که همین حشره  منفوره باشد بعدها اطلاق شده است منحصراً. ولی اسم حقیقی این نوع حشره یعنی ساس معروف ما در عربی «بق » است که مفرد آن «بقة»است ...امروز هم در شامات (یا در مصر) چنانکه از یکی از عربهای همان صفحات شنیدم ساس را بقه میگویند. (یادداشتهای قزوینی ج 3 ص 140 و 141). در کتاب فرهنگ ایران باستان پورداود آمده : واژه  ساس که بر یکی از خرفستران اطلاق میشود از زبان آشوری بما رسیده است و آن را «ساسو» میگفتند و بمعنی بید بوده ، یا کرمی که در جامه افتد. (همان کتاب ص 201) . در فرهنگ روستائی تالیف تقی بهرامی آمده : ساس یکی از حشرات مضر است ، از خون بدن انسان تغذیه میکند و علاوه براینکه در نتیجه  این عمل و خارش آن خواب راحت را از انسان دور می نماید موجب بروز ناخوشی هم میشود. ساس بطول 4 و 5 و بعرض 3 هزارم گز است . شکل بدنش بیضی و رنگش مایل به قرمزی است . ساس ماده در خرداد شروع به تخم گذاری می نماید و ممکن است تا پنجاه تخم بریزد. ساس عموماً در جاهای تاریک مانند درز و شکاف در و دیوار و تختخواب چوبی و تشک و لحاف و زیر فرش و غیره تخم میگذارد. پس از یک هفته نوزاد ساس ازتخم بیرون می آید و یازده ماه نشو و نما می نماید تا کامل شود. ساس زمستان را در شکاف و سوراخ و درزها پنهان میشود و شب بیرون می آید و خون انسان را می مکد. همینکه یک مرتبه سیر شد و شکمش پر خون گردید میتواند تا دو ماه بدون غذا زندگی کند. این حشره ناقل میکرب حصبه و طاعون و تب راجعه هم می باشد و انسان را بدان ناخوشیها گرفتار میسازد. بهترین طرز جلوگیری از پیدایش ساس نظافت و پاکیزگی خانه و بدن است . برای دفع این حشره باید اولاً همه جا را با دقت نگریست و هر جا که دیده شد آن را کشت . علاوه بر این شاخه و برگ بید راشب زیر بالش گذارند چون ساس آن را دوست دارد دور آن جمع میشود صبح ساسها را گرفته بکشند. بالاخره اگر ساس زیاد باشد ناچار باید باطاق و تختخواب و غیره دود گوگرد داد، بدین ترتیب که اول روزنه و سوراخهای در وپنجره را میگیرند و سپس چند منقل سفالی در نقاط مختلف اطاق می گذارند و در آن گوگرد نرم میریزند. و برای آنکه آتش بهتر در گوگرد اثر کند و خوب بگیرد قدری شوره هم در منقل میریزند. عموماً برای هر یک صد گز مکعب فضا 3 هزار گرم گوگرد نرم و 300 گرم شوره بکار می برند. همینکه گوگرد آتش گرفت و دود بلند شد باید از اطاق خارج شد زیرا گاز آن خفه کننده است . پس از آنکه 24 ساعت دود در اطاق ماند در و پنجره را باز میکنند تا دود خارج شود. بر اثر دود گوگرد ساسها مرده و اطاق قابل زندگانی است . (فرهنگ روستائی ص 730 و 731).

ص: 438

طبیعت آن

کرم و خشک در دوم

افعال و خواص آن

بلع نمودن زندۀ آن با حنا جهت رفع عسر البول و قطع حمی و بلع هفت عدد آن در جوف باقلی سوراخدار قیل از نوبۀ تپ ربع مجرب کفته اند و نفوخ سائیده آن در احلبل جهت ادرار بول و تفتیت حصاه نافع و چون بکزد بسبب سمیتی که دارد در عضو خارش و اندک ورمی حادث کردد مصلح آن مالیدن روغن و آب لیمو است و چون زرنیخ سائیده و نوشادر را با پیه کاو سرشته چند روز در مکانی که در ان بسیار باشد بخور کنند منع تولد آن نماید و مجرب دانسته اند و از دود کاه و سرکین کاو و زاج و شونیز و چوب صنوبر بکریزد و چرب نمودن صورت نیز باعث قلت ضرر و الم نیش آنست

مخزن الادویه عقیلی خراسانی

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ساس (در متون طب سنتی، بق و فسافس) حشره‌ای از راسته نیم‌بالان و خانواده بسترساسان (Cimicidae) است.

ساس از کک بزرگ‌تر است و لای درز تشک و متکا و شکاف اجناس چوبی مخفی می‌شود و شب خارج شده و به انسان نیش می‌زند. آنها اغلب در شب فعالیت می‌کنند اما اگر یک هفته از خانه دور باشید، همین که به استراحت بپردازید یا روی مبل بنشینید به سراغ شما خواهند آمد. می‌بینید که روشن گذاشتن چراغ‌ها در مورد این خون‌آشام‌های کوچک، مخصوصاً زمانی که گرسنه هستند، چندان مؤثر نیست.[۳]

ساس از راه خون‌خوراکی از انسان و دیگر جانداران خون‌گرم تغذیه می‌کند.[۴]

دو نوع ساس که از نظر بهداشتی برای انسان اهمیت دارد، ساس معمولی (ساس تختخواب، Cimex lectularius) و ساس گرمسیری (Cimex hemipterus) هستند. این دو نوع ساس از روی پیش‌سینه یعنی بخش اول سینه از هم تشخیص داده می‌شوند.[۵] در حال حاضر شواهدی دال بر انتقال بیماریهای عفونی مانند هپاتیت بی یا سی و یا انتقال ایدز از طریق گزش ساس در دست نیست. ویروسها در داخل بدن ساس تکثیر نمی‌شوند و در مدلهای حیوانی انتقال بیماریهای ویروسی از طریق گزش ساس ممکن نبوده.[۶]

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به عربی بق الفراش:

بق الفراش cimex lectularius حشرات صغيرة بنية اللون مسطحة تتغذى على الدماء وهي النوع الأكثر تأقلماً على العيش مع البشر منذ عصور بعيدة.

بعض الأنواع الأخرى تفضل أن تتغذى على عائل بري خصوصاً الخفافيش والطيور.

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به پشتو کتمل:

کټمل (علمي نوم: Cimex lectularius) چې په پارسي کې یې خسک بولي، د وزر لرونکو خوځندکو څخه دی چې د Cimicidae په کورنۍ او د Cimex په جنس اړه لري.

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به عبری میتّا، پیشپِش:

פשפש המיטה (שם מדעי: Cimex lectularius) הוא חרק משפחת הפשפשיים. הפשפשים בעלי גלגול חסר הכולל שלוש דרגות: ביצה, נימפה ובוגר. פשפשי המיטה הם טפילים חיצוניים, של בעלי דם חם, כמו תרנגולות, עכברים ויונקים אחרים כולל אדם. הטורפים הטבעיים של הפשפש הם מקקים ועכבישים. כינויי פשפשי המיטה: "פשפשים", "מעילים אדומים", "משטחי מהגוני".

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به ترکی:

Tahtakurusu, Hemiptera takımının Cimicidae familyasından böceklerin ortak adıdır. Bunlar yalnızca memelilerden ve kuşlardan kan emerler. Kan emmek için geceleri konukçularına yanaşırlar. Diğer zamanlarda ışıktan korunmuş yerlerde saklanırlar.

En çok bilinen türü koyu kırmızımsı kahverengi renkte ve 5 mm boyunda olan Cimex lectularius 'tur. Başlangıçta yarasa paraziti olduğu varsayılan bu hayvanların, mağara devrinden sonra insan paraziti olduğu düşünülmektedir.^[1]

Tahtakuruları ısırmayla herhangi bir hastalık taşıdıkları bildirilmemiş olsa da, cilt tahrişlerine, piskolojik etkilere ve alerjik reaksiyonlara yol açabilirler. Isırıklar şiddetle kaşıntı hissi verdiğinden, aşırı kaşımayla cilt sorunu veya iyileşme sonrası iz kalması sorunları yaşanabilir. Tahtakuruları, havanın sıcak veya kuru olmasından bağımsız her ortamda canlı kalmayı başarabilirler. Çok soğuk havalarda yarı uyku durumuna geçip hiç yemeden 1 yıl yaşayabilirler. Pestisitlerin onları öldürücü olması için direkt vücutlarına temas etmesi gerekiyor.

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Bed bug

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Bed bug (disambiguation).

Bed bug
Cimex lectularius
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Arthropoda
Class:	Insecta
Order:	Hemiptera
Suborder:	Heteroptera
Infraorder:	Cimicomorpha
Superfamily:	Cimicoidea
Family:	Cimicidae Latreille, 1802
Subfamilies, genera and species
Subfamily Afrociminae[show] Subfamily Cimicinae[show] Subfamily Cacodminae[show] Subfamily Haematosiphoninae[show] Subfamily Latrocimicinae[show] Subfamily Primicimicinae[show]

Bed bugs, bed-bugs, or bedbugs^[2] are parasitic insects of the cimicidfamily that feed exclusively on blood. Cimex lectularius, the common bed bug, is the best known as it prefers to feed on human blood. Other Cimexspecies specialize in other animals, e.g., bat bugs, such as Cimex pipistrelli(Europe), Cimex pilosellus (western US), and Cimex adjunctus (entire eastern US).^[3]

The name "bed bug" derives from the preferred habitat of Cimex lectularius: warm houses and especially near or inside beds and bedding or other sleep areas. Bed bugs are mainly active at night, but are not exclusively nocturnal. They usually feed on their hosts without being noticed.^[4][5][6]

A number of adverse health effects may result from bed bug bites, includingskin rashes, psychological effects, and allergic symptoms.^[7] Bed bugs are not known to transmit any pathogens as disease vectors. Certain signs and symptoms suggest the presence of bed bugs; finding the adult insects confirms the diagnosis.

Bed bugs have been known as human parasites for thousands of years.^[8] At a point in the early 1940s, they were mostly eradicated in the developed world, but have increased in prevalence since 1995, likely due to pesticide resistance, governmental bans on effective pesticides, and international travel.^[9][10] Because infestation of human habitats has begun to increase, bed bug bites and related conditions have been on the rise as well.^[8][11]

Contents

  [show] 

Infestation[edit]

Main article: Bed bug infestation

Bedbug bites

Diagnosis of an infestation involves both finding bed bugs and the occurrence of compatible symptoms.^[7] Treatment involves the elimination of the insect (including its eggs) and taking measures to treat symptoms until they resolve.^[7]

Bed bug bites or cimicosis may lead to a range of skin manifestations from no visible effects to prominent blisters.^[12] Effects include skin rashes, psychological effects, and allergic symptoms.^[7]

Although bed bugs can be infected with at least 28 human pathogens, no studies have found that the insects are capable of transmitting any of these to humans.^[11] They have been found with methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus (MRSA)^[13] and with vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faecium (VRE), but the significance of this is still unknown.^[14]

Investigations into potential transmission of HIV, MRSA, hepatitis B,hepatitis C, and hepatitis E have not shown that bed bugs can spread these diseases. However, arboviruses may be transmissible.^[15]

Description[edit]

Physical[edit]

Adult bed bugs are light brown to reddish-brown, flattened, oval-shaped, and have no hind wings. The front wings arevestigial and reduced to pad-like structures. Bed bugs have segmented abdomens with microscopic hairs that give them a banded appearance. Adults grow to 4–5 mm (0.16–0.20 in) long and 1.5–3 mm (0.059–0.118 in) wide.

Newly hatched nymphs are translucent, lighter in color, and become browner as they moult and reach maturity. A bed bug nymph of any age that has just consumed a blood meal has a bright red, translucent abdomen, fading to brown over the next several hours, and to opaque black within two days as the insect digests its meal. Bed bugs may be mistaken for other insects, such as booklice, small cockroaches, or carpet beetles; however, when warm and active, their movements are more ant-like and, like most other true bugs, they emit a characteristic disagreeable odor when crushed.

Bed bugs use pheromones and kairomones to communicate regarding nesting locations, feeding, and reproduction.

The lifespan of bed bugs varies by species and is also dependent on feeding.

Bed bugs can survive a wide range of temperatures and atmospheric compositions.^[16] Below 16.1 °C (61.0 °F), adults enter semihibernation and can survive longer; they can survive for at least five days at −10 °C (14 °F), but die after 15 minutes of exposure to −32 °C (−26 °F).^[17] Common commercial and residential freezers reach temperatures low enough to kill most life stages of bed bug, with 95% mortality after 3 days at −12 °C (10 °F).^[18] They show high desiccation tolerance, surviving low humidity and a 35–40 °C range even with loss of one-third of body weight; earlier life stages are more susceptible to drying out than later ones.^[19]

The thermal death point for C. lectularius is 45 °C (113 °F); all stages of life are killed by 7 minutes of exposure to 46 °C (115 °F).^[17] Bed bugs apparently cannot survive high concentrations of carbon dioxide for very long; exposure to nearly pure nitrogen atmospheres, however, appears to have relatively little effect even after 72 hours.^[20]

Feeding habits[edit]

A scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of Cimex lectularius, digitally colorized with the insect's skin-piercing mouthparts highlighted in purple and red

Bed bugs are obligatory hematophagous (bloodsucking) insects. Most species feed on humans only when other prey are unavailable.^[21][22][23] They obtain all the additional moisture they need from water vapor in the surrounding air.^[24] Bed bugs are attracted to their hosts primarily by carbon dioxide, secondarily by warmth, and also by certain chemicals.^[25][26][27] Bedbugs prefer exposed skin, preferably the face, neck, and arms of a sleeping person.

Bedbugs have mouth parts that saw through the skin, and inject saliva withanticoagulants and painkillers. Sensitivity of humans varies from extreme allergic reaction to no reaction at all (about 20%). The bite usually produces a swelling with no red spot, but when many bugs feed on a small area, reddish spots may appear after the swelling subsides.^[17]

Although under certain cool conditions adult bed bugs can live for over a year without feeding,^[28] under typically warm conditions they try to feed at five- to ten-day intervals, and adults can survive for about five months without food.^[29] Younger instars cannot survive nearly as long, though even the vulnerable newly hatched first instars can survive for weeks without taking a blood meal.

At the 57th annual meeting of the Entomological Society of America in 2009, newer generations of pesticide-resistant bed bugs in Virginia were reported to survive only two months without feeding.^[30]

DNA from human blood meals can be recovered from bed bugs for up to 90 days, which mean they can be used forforensic purposes in identifying on whom the bed bugs have fed.^[31][32]

Feeding physiology[edit]

The tip of a bed bug rostrum

A bed bug pierces the skin of its host with a stylet fascicle, rostrum, or "beak". The rostrum is composed of the maxillae and mandibles, which have been modified into elongated shapes from a basic, ancestral style. The right and left maxillarystylets are connected at their midline and a section at the centerline forms a large food canal and a smaller salivary canal. The entire maxillary and mandibular bundle penetrates the skin.^[6]

The tips of the right and left maxillary stylets are not the same; the right is hook-like and curved, and the left is straight. The right and left mandibular stylets extend along the outer sides of their respective maxillary stylets and do not reach anywhere near the tip of the fused maxillary stylets. The stylets are retained in a groove in the labium, and during feeding, they are freed from the groove as the jointed labium is bent or folded out of the way; its tip never enters the wound.^[6]

The mandibular stylet tips have small teeth, and through alternately moving these stylets back and forth, the insect cuts a path through tissue for the maxillary bundle to reach an appropriately sized blood vessel. Pressure from the blood vessel itself fills the insect with blood in three to five minutes. The bug then withdraws the stylet bundle from the feeding position and retracts it back into the labial groove, folds the entire unit back under the head, and returns to its hiding place.^[6] It takes between five and ten minutes for a bed bug to become completely engorged with blood.^[33] In all, the insect may spend less than 20 minutes in physical contact with its host, and does not try to feed again until it has either completed a moult or, if an adult, has thoroughly digested the meal.

Reproduction[edit]

A male bed bug (Cimex lectularius)traumatically inseminates a female

All bed bugs mate by traumatic insemination.^[5][34] Female bed bugs possess areproductive tract that functions during oviposition, but the male does not use this tract for sperm insemination.^[5] Instead, the male pierces the female's abdomenwith his hypodermic penis and ejaculates into the body cavity. In all bed bug species except Primicimex cavernis, sperm are injected into the mesospermalege,^[5] a component of the spermalege,^[5] a secondary genital structure that reduces the wounding and immunological costs of traumatic insemination.^[35][36][37] Injected sperm travel via the haemolymph (blood) tosperm storage structures called seminal conceptacles, with fertilisation eventually taking place at the ovaries.^[36]

Male bed bugs sometimes attempt to mate with other males and pierce their abdomens.^[38] This behaviour occurs because sexual attraction in bed bugs is based primarily on size, and males mount any freshly fed partner regardless of sex.^[39] The "bed bug alarm pheromone" consists of (E)-2-octenal and (E)-2-hexenal. It is released when a bed bug is disturbed, as during an attack by a predator. A 2009 study demonstrated the alarm pheromone is also released by male bed bugs to repel other males that attempt to mate with them.^[37][40]

Cimex lectularius and C. hemipterus mate with each other given the opportunity, but the eggs then produced are usually sterile. In a 1988 study, one of 479 eggs was fertile and resulted in a hybrid, Cimex hemipterus × lectularius.^[41][42]

Sperm protection[edit]

Cimex lectularius males have environmental microbes on their genitals. These microbes damage sperm cells, leaving them unable to fertilize female gametes. Due to these dangerous microbes, males have evolved antimicrobial ejaculate substances that prevent sperm damage. When the microbes contact sperm or the male genitals, the bed bug releases antimicrobial substances. Many species of these microbes live in the bodies of females after mating. The microbes can cause infections in the females. It has been suggested that females receive benefit from the ejaculate. Though the benefit is not direct, females are able to produce more eggs than optimum increasing the amount of the females' genes in the gene pool.^[43]

Sperm and seminal fluid allocation[edit]

In organisms, sexual selection extends past differential reproduction to affect sperm composition, sperm competition, and ejaculate size. Males of C. lectularius allocate 12% of their sperm and 19% of their seminal fluid per mating. Due to these findings, Reinhard et. al proposed that multiple mating is limited by seminal fluid and not sperm. After measuring ejaculate volume, mating rate and estimating sperm density, Reinhardt et al. showed that mating could be limited by seminal fluid. Despite these advances, the cost difference between ejaculate-dose dependence and mating frequency dependence have not been explored.^[44]

Egg production[edit]

Males fertilize females only by traumatic insemination into the structure called the ectospermalege (the organ of Berlese, however the organ of Ribaga (as it was first named) was first designated as an organ of stridulation. These two names are not descriptive, so other terminologies are used). On fertilization, the female's ovaries finish developing, which suggests that sperm plays a role other than fertilizing the egg. Fertilization also allows for egg production through the corpus allatum. Sperm remains viable in a female's spermathecae (a better term is conceptacle), a sperm-carrying sack, for a long period of time as long as body temperature is optimum. The female lays fertilized eggs until she depletes the sperm found in her conceptacle. After the depletion of sperm, she lays a few sterile eggs. The number of eggs a C. lectulariusfemale produces does not depend on the sperm she harbors, but on the female's nutritional level.^[45]

Alarm pheromones[edit]

In C. lectularius, males sometimes mount other males because male sexual interest is directed at any recently fed individual regardless of their sex, but unfed females may also be mounted. Traumatic insemination is the only way for copulation to occur in bed bugs. Females have evolved the spermalege to protect themselves from wounding and infection. Because males lack this organ, traumatic insemination could leave them badly injured. For this reason, males have evolved alarm pheromones to signal their sex to other males. If a male C. lectularius mounts another male, the mounted male releases the pheromone signal and the male on top stops before insemination.

Females are capable of producing alarm pheromones to avoid multiple mating, but they generally do not do so. Two reasons are proposed as to why females do not release alarm pheromones to protect themselves. First, alarm pheromone production is costly. Due to egg production, females may refrain from spending additional energy on alarm pheromones. The second proposed reason is that releasing the alarm pheromone reduces the benefits associated with multiple mating.^[46] Benefits of multiple mating include material benefits, better quality nourishment or more nourishment, genetic benefits including increased fitness of offspring, and finally, the cost of resistance may be higher than the benefit of consent—which appears the case in C. lectularius.^[47]

Life stages[edit]

Bed bugs have five immature nymph life stages and a final sexually mature adult stage.^[48] They shed their skins throughecdysis at each stage, discarding their outer exoskeleton, which is somewhat clear, empty exoskeletons of the bugs themselves. Bed bugs must molt six times before becoming fertile adults, and must consume at least one blood meal to complete each moult.^[49]

Each of the immature stages lasts about a week, depending on temperature and the availability of food, and the complete lifecycle can be completed in as little as two months (rather long compared to other ectoparasites). Fertilized females with enough food lay three to four eggs each day continually until the end of their lifespans (about nine months under warm conditions), possibly generating as many as 500 eggs in this time.^[49] Genetic analysis has shown that a single pregnant bed bug, possibly a single survivor of eradication, can be responsible for an entire infestation over a matter of weeks, rapidly producing generations of offspring.^[50]

·        

Slide of Cimex lectularius

·        

Bed bug (4 mm length; 2.5 mm width), shown in a film roll plastic container, on the right is the recently sloughed skin from its nymph stage

·        

A bed bug nymph feeding on a host

·        

Blood-fed C. lectularius(note the differences in color with respect to digestion of blood meal)

Sexual dimorphism[edit]

Sexual dimorphism occurs in C. lectularius, with the females larger in size than the males on average. The abdomens of the sexes differ in that the males appear to have "pointed" abdomens, which are actually their copulatory organs, while females have more rounded abdomens. Since males are attracted to large body size, any bed bug with a recent blood meal can be seen as a potential mate. However, males will mount unfed, flat females on occasion. The female is able to curl her abdomen forward and underneath toward the head to not mate. Males are generally unable to discriminate between the sexes until after mounting, but before inseminating.^[51]

Host searching[edit]

C. lectularius only feeds every five to seven days, which suggests that it does not spend the majority of its life searching for a host. When a bed bug is starved, it leaves its shelter and searches for a host. If it successfully feeds, it returns to its shelter. If it does not feed, it continues to search for a host. After searching—regardless of whether or not it has eaten—the bed bug returns to the shelter to aggregate before the photophase (period of light during a day-night cycle). Reis argues that two reasons explain why C. lectularius would return to its shelter and aggregate after feeding. One is to find a mate and the other is to find shelter to avoid getting smashed after eating.^[52]

Aggregation and dispersal behavior[edit]

C. lectularius aggregates under all life stages and mating conditions. Bed bugs may choose to aggregate because of predation, resistance to desiccation, and more opportunities to find a mate. Airborne pheromones are responsible for aggregations. Another source of aggregation could be the recognition of other C. lectularius bugs through mechanoreceptors located on their antennae. Aggregations are formed and disbanded based on the associated cost and benefits. Females are more often found separate from the aggregation than males. Females are more likely to expand the population range and find new sites. Active female dispersal can account for treatment failures. Males, when found in areas with few females, abandon an aggregation to find a new mate. The males excrete an aggregation pheromone into the air that attracts virgin females and arrests other males.^[53]

Detection[edit]

Bed bug eggs and two adult bed bugs from inside a dresser

A bed bug detection dog in New York

Bed bug fecal spot

Bed bug roaming around carpet wrinkles

Bed bugs can exist singly, but tend to congregate once established. Though strictly parasitic, they spend only a tiny fraction of their lifecycles physically attached to hosts. Once a bed bug finishes feeding, it relocates to a place close to a known host, commonly in or near beds or couches in clusters of adults, juveniles, and eggs—which entomologists call harborage areas or simply harborages to which the insect returns after future feedings by following chemical trails. These places can vary greatly in format, including luggage, inside of vehicles, within furniture, amongst bedside clutter—even inside electrical sockets and nearby laptop computers. Bed bugs may also nest near animals that have nested within a dwelling, such as bats, birds,^[54] or rodents. They are also capable of surviving on domestic cats and dogs, though humans are the preferred host ofC. lectularius.^[55]

Bed bugs can also be detected by their characteristic smell of rottingraspberries.^[56] Bed bug detection dogs are trained to pinpoint infestations, with a possible accuracy rate between 11% and 83%.^[57]

Management[edit]

See also: Bed bug control techniques

Eradication of bed bugs frequently requires a combination of nonpesticide approaches and the occasional use of pesticides.^[8][11]

Mechanical approaches, such as vacuuming up the insects and heat-treating or wrapping mattresses, are effective.^[8][57] A combination of heat and drying treatments is most effective. An hour at a temperature of 45 °C (113 °F) or over, or two hours at less than −17 °C (1 °F) kills them;^[57] a domestic clothes drier or steam kills bedbugs.^[17] Another study found 100% mortality rates for bed bugs exposed to temperatures greater than 50 °C (122 °F) for more than 2 minutes.^[58]Starving them is difficult as they can survive without eating for 100 to 300 days, depending on temperature.^[57] For public health reasons, individuals are encouraged to call a professional pest control service to eradicate bed bugs in a home, rather than attempting to do it themselves, particularly if they live in a multifamily building.^[59]

As of 2012, no truly effective pesticides were available.^[57] Pesticides that have historically been found effective include pyrethroids, dichlorvos, and malathion.^[11]Resistance to pesticides has increased significantly over time, and harm to healthfrom their use is of concern.^[8] The carbamate insecticide propoxur is highly toxic to bed bugs, but it has potential toxicity to children exposed to it, and the US Environmental Protection Agency has been reluctant to approve it for indoor use.^[60] Boric acid, occasionally applied as a safe indoor insecticide, is not effective against bed bugs because they do not groom.^{[61][dubious – discuss]} The fungus Beauveria bassiana is being researched as of 2012 for its ability to control bed bugs.^[62] As bed bugs continue to adapt pesticide resistance, researchers have examined on the insect's genome to see how the adaptations develop and to look for potential vulnerabilities that can be exploited in the growth and development phases.^[63]

Predators[edit]

Natural enemies of bed bugs include the masked hunter insect (also known as "masked bed bug hunter"),^[64]cockroaches,^[65] ants, spiders (particularly Thanatus flavidus), mites, and centipedes (particularly the house centipedeScutigera coleoptrata). However, biological pest control is not considered practical for eliminating bed bugs from human dwellings.^[17]

Epidemiology[edit]

Main article: Epidemiology of bed bugs

Bed bugs occur around the world.^[66] Rates of infestations in developed countries, while decreasing from the 1930s to the 1980s, have increased dramatically since the 1980s.^[8][11][66] Previously, they were common in the developing world, but rare in the developed world.^[11] The increase in the developed world may have been caused by increased international travel, resistance to insecticides, and the use of new pest-control methods that do not affect bed bugs.^[67][68]

The fall in bed bug populations after the 1930s in the developed world is believed partly due to the use of DDT to kill cockroaches.^[69] The invention of the vacuum cleaner and simplification of furniture design may have also played a role.^[69] Others believe it might simply be the cyclical nature of the organism.^[70]

The exact causes of this resurgence remain unclear; it is variously ascribed to greater foreign travel, increased immigration from the developing world to the developed world, more frequent exchange of second-hand furnishings among homes, a greater focus on control of other pests, resulting in neglect of bed bug countermeasures, and increasing resistance to pesticides.^[11][67] Declines in household cockroach populations that have resulted from the use ofinsecticides effective against this major bed bug predator have aided the bed bugs' resurgence, as have bans on DDT and other potent pesticides.^[71]

The common bed bug (C. lectularius) is the species best adapted to human environments. It is found in temperateclimates throughout the world. Other species include Cimex hemipterus, found in tropical regions, which also infests poultry and bats, and Leptocimex boueti, found in the tropics of West Africa and South America, which infests bats and humans. Cimex pilosellus and Cimex pipistrella primarily infest bats, while Haematosiphon inodora, a species of North America, primarily infests poultry.^[72]

History[edit]

An 1860 engraving of parts of a bed bug. A. Intestines – B. Antenna of the male – C. Eye – D. Haustellum, or sucker, closed – E. Side view of sucker – F. Under part of head – G. Under lip – GG. Hair of the tube, and outside cases – H. Egg-bag – I. Larva emerging from the eggs

C. lectularius may have originated in the Middle East in caves inhabited by bats and humans.^[22]

Bed bugs were mentioned in ancient Greece as early as 400 BC, and were later mentioned by Aristotle. Pliny's Natural History, first published circa 77 AD in Rome, claimed bed bugs had medicinal value in treating ailments such as snake bites and ear infections. (Belief in the medicinal use of bed bugs persisted until at least the 18th century, when Guettard recommended their use in the treatment of hysteria.^[73])

Bed bugs were first mentioned in Germany in the 11th century, in France in the 13th century, and in England in 1583,^[22] though they remained rare in England until 1670. Some in the 18th century believed bed bugs had been brought to London with supplies of wood to rebuild the city after the Great Fire of London (1666). Giovanni Antonio Scopoli noted their presence inCarniola (roughly equivalent to present-day Slovenia) in the 18th century.^[74][75]

Traditional methods of repelling and/or killing bed bugs include the use of plants, fungi, and insects (or their extracts), such as black pepper;^[76] black cohosh (Actaea racemosa); Pseudarthria hookeri; Laggera alata (Chinese yángmáo cǎo | 羊毛草);^[17] Eucalyptus salignaoil;^[77][78] henna (Lawsonia inermis or camphire);^[79] "infused oil of Melolontha vulgaris" (presumably cockchafer); fly agaric (Amanita muscaria); Actaea spp. (e.g. black cohosh); tobacco; "heated oil of Terebinthina" (i.e. true turpentine); wild mint (Mentha arvensis); narrow-leaved pepperwort (Lepidium ruderale); Myrica spp. (e.g. bayberry); Robert geranium(Geranium robertianum); bugbane (Cimicifuga spp.); "herb and seeds of Cannabis"; "opulus" berries (possibly maple orEuropean cranberrybush); masked hunter bugs (Reduvius personatus), "and many others".^[80]

In the mid-19th century, smoke from peat fires was recommended as an indoor domestic fumigant against bed bugs.^[81]

Dusts have been used to ward off insects from grain storage for centuries, including "plant ash, lime, dolomite, certain types of soil, and diatomaceous earth or Kieselguhr".^[82] Of these, diatomaceous earth in particular has seen a revival as a nontoxic (when in amorphous form) residual pesticide for bed bug abatement. While diatomaceous earth performed poorly, silica gel may be effective.^[83][84]

Basket-work panels were put around beds and shaken out in the morning in the UK and in France in the 19th century. Scattering leaves of plants with microscopic hooked hairs around a bed at night, then sweeping them up in the morning and burning them, was a technique reportedly used in Southern Rhodesia and in the Balkans.^[85]

Bean leaves have been used historically to trap bedbugs in houses in Eastern Europe. The trichomes on the bean leaves capture the insects by impaling the feet (tarsi) of the insects. The leaves are then destroyed.^[86]

20th century[edit]

Prior to the mid-20th century, bed bugs were very common. According to a report by the UK Ministry of Health, in 1933, all the houses in many areas had some degree of bed bug infestation.^[87] The increase in bed bug populations in the early 20th century has been attributed to the advent of electric heating, which allowed bed bugs to thrive year-round instead of only in warm weather.^[88]

Bed bugs were a serious problem at U.S. military bases during World War II.^[89] Initially, the problem was solved by fumigation, using Zyklon Discoids that released hydrogen cyanide gas, a rather dangerous procedure.^[89] Later, DDT was used to good effect as a safer alternative.^[89]

The decline of bed bug populations in the 20th century is often credited to potent pesticides that had not previously been widely available.^[90] Other contributing factors that are less frequently mentioned in news reports are increased public awareness and slum clearance programs that combined pesticide use with steam disinfection, relocation of slum dwellers to new housing, and in some cases also follow-up inspections for several months after relocated tenants moved into their new housing.^[88]

Resurgence[edit]

Bed bug infestations resurged since the 1980s^[50] for reasons that are not clear, but contributing factors may be complacency, increased resistance, bans on pesticides, and increased international travel.^[90] The U.S. National Pest Management Association reported a 71% increase in bed bug calls between 2000 and 2005.^[91] The number of reported incidents in New York City alone rose from 500 in 2004 to 10,000 in 2009.^[92] In 2013, Chicago was listed as the number 1 city in the United States with the worst bed bug infestation.^[93] As a result, the Chicago City Council passed a bed bug control ordinance to limit their spread. Additionally, bed bugs are reaching places in which they never established before, such as southern South America.^[94][95]

One recent theory about bed bug reappearance in the US is that they never truly disappeared, but may have been forced to alternative hosts. Consistent with this is the finding that bed bug DNA shows no evidence of an evolutionary bottleneck. Furthermore, investigators have found high populations of bed bugs at poultry facilities in Arkansas. Poultry workers at these facilities may be spreading bed bugs, unknowingly carrying them to their places of residence and elsewhere after leaving work.^[96][97]

Society and culture[edit]

The saying, "Good night, sleep tight, don't let the bed bugs bite", is common for parents to say to young children before they go to sleep.^[98]

In Chhattisgarh, India, bed bugs have been used as a traditional medicine for alopecia, epilepsy, piles, and urinary disorders, but this practice has no scientific basis.^[99] Bed bug secretions can inhibit the growth of some bacteria and fungi; antibacterial components from the bed bug could be used against human pathogens, and be a source of pharmacologically active molecules as a resource for the discovery of new drugs.^[100]

Etymology[edit]

The word bug and its earlier spelling bugge originally meant "bed bug". Many other creatures are now called "bugs", such as the "ladybug" ("ladybird" outside North America) and the "potato bug"; the word is used informally for any insect, or even microscopic germs or diseases caused by these germs, but the earliest recorded use of the actual word "bug" referred to a bed bug.^[101]

The term "bed bug" may also be spelled "bedbug" or "bed-bug", though published sources consistently use the unhyphenated two-word name "bed bug". The pests have been known by a variety of other informal names, including chilly billies, chinche bug, crimson rambler, heavy dragoon, mahogany flat, redcoat, and wall louse.^[61]

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94.  Jump up^ Faúndez, E. I. & M. A. Carvajal. Bed bugs are back and also arriving is the southernmost record of Cimex lectularius (Heteroptera: Cimicidae) in South America. Journal of Medical Entomology, 51(5): 1073-1076.

95.  Jump up^ Faúndez, E. I. 2015. Primeros registros de la chinche de cama Cimex lectularius Linneo, 1755 (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) en la Isla Tierra del Fuego (Chile). Arquivos Entomolóxicos, 14: 279-280.

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97.  Jump up^ Steelman, C.D.; Szalanski, A.L.; Trout, R.; McKern, J.A.; Solorzano, C.; Austin, J.W. (2008). "Susceptibility of the bed bug Cimex lectularius L. (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) to selected insecticides". Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology. 25 (1): 41–51.doi:10.3954/1523-5475-25.1.41.

98.  Jump up^ Berg, Rebecca (2010). "Bed Bugs: The Pesticide Dilemma". Journal of Environmental Health. 72 (10): 32–35.PMID 20556941.

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Further reading[edit]

·         Stephen Doggett. A Code of Practice for the Control of Bed Bugs in Australia. Draft 4th edition, ICPMR & AEPMA, Sydney Australia, September 2011. ISBN 1-74080-135-0."Bed Bug Home Page". Bedbug.org.au. 2005-10-14. Retrieved 2013-11-11.

External links[edit]

Find more about Bed bugs at Wikipedia's sister projects
	Definitions from Wiktionary
	Media from Commons
	News from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks
	Learning resources from Wikiversity

·         bed bug on the University of Florida/IFAS Featured Creatures Web site

·         Pollack, Richard; Alpert, Gary (2005). "Bedbugs: Biology and Management". Harvard School of Public Health. Archived from the original on 20 June 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-21.

·         National Geographic segment on Bed bugs on YouTube

·         Bed Bug Fact Sheet highlights prevention tips as well as information on habits, habitat and health threats

·         Bed bugs – University of Sydney and Westmead Hospital Department of Medical Entomology

·         Understanding and Controlling Bed Bugs – National Pesticide Information Center

·         CISR: Center for Invasive Species Research More information on Bed Bugs, with lots of photos and video

·         EPA bedbugs information page

[show] ·         v ·         t ·         e Psychophysiology: Sleep and sleep disorders (F51 and G47 / 307.4 and 327)

[show] ·         v ·         t ·         e Animal bites and stings (X20, E900–E909)

Categories: 

·         Cimicomorpha

·         Parasitic bugs

·         Household pest insects

·         Biting insects