کاتای (/kæˈθeɪ/) یک
نام تاریخی برای چین است که در اروپا استفاده میشد. در اوایل دوره مدرن، اروپاییها
کاتای را فرهنگی کاملاً جدا و متمایز از چین میدانستند. با افزایش دانش در مورد
شرق آسیا، کاتای به عنوان یک حکومت مشابه چین تلقی شد. اصطلاح "کاتای"
به یک نام شاعرانه برای چین تبدیل شد. نام کاتای از کلمه خیتان[1]، قومی کوچنشین
شبهمغولی که از سال 916 تا 1125 بر سلسله لیائو در شمال چین حکومت میکردند،
گرفته شده است و بعداً پس از سرنگونی توسط سلسله جین به غرب مهاجرت کردند تا
امپراتوری قراختای (سلسله لیائو غربی) را برای یک قرن دیگر تشکیل دهند. در اصل، این
نام توسط آسیاییهای مرکزی و غربی و اروپاییها به شمال چین اطلاق میشد. این نام
همچنین در کتاب مارکو پولو در مورد سفرهایش به سلسله یوان چین (او از جنوب چین به
عنوان مانگی یاد میکرد) استفاده شده است. اودوریک اهل پوردنونه (متوفی ۱۳۳۱) نیز
در سفرنامههای خود از سفرش قبل از ۱۳۳۰، شاید ۱۳۲۱-۱۳۳۰، درباره کاتای و خان مینویسد.
فهرست مطالب ۱ تاریخ ۲ کاتای و مانگی ۳ شناسایی چین به عنوان کاتای ۴ سیر ریشهشناسی
۵ کاربرد در انگلیسی ۶ در نامهای نهادهای سازمانیافته ۷ منابع ۷.۱ استنادها ۷.۲
منابع تاریخ در این نقشه مربوط به سال ۱۵۷۰ که توسط آبراهام اورتلیوس کشیده شده
است، کاتایو در داخل چین (اشاره به گوانگدونگ امروزی) و چکوان (ژجیانگ) واقع شده و
در جنوب غربی با "تبت" و در غرب با "کامول" هممرز است. همچنین
مانگی (بین "کاتایو" و زانتون (شاندونگ)) نیز وجود دارد. اشیاء موجود در
"کاتایو" بر اساس توصیف مارکو پولو هستند و شامل پایتخت کامبالو، زاندو،
و یک پل مرمری میشوند. اصطلاح «کتای» از نام خیتانها گرفته شده است. شکلی از نام
«کتای» در یک سند مانوی اویغوری مربوط به حدود سال ۱۰۰۰ میلادی گواهی شده است.[2]
خیتانها خود را «قیدان» مینامند (خط کوچک خیتان: Khita-i
small.png؛ چینی:
契丹؛ پینیین: Qìdān)، اما در زبان اویغورهای باستان، -n یا -ń پایانی به -y تبدیل میشد و این شکل ممکن است منبع نام «ختای» برای نویسندگان
مسلمان بعدی باشد.[3] این نسخه از نام سپس از طریق منابع مسلمان و روسی به اروپای
قرون وسطی و اوایل دوران مدرن معرفی شد.[4] خیتانها برای مسلمانان آسیای مرکزی
شناخته شده بودند: در سال ۱۰۲۶، فرستادگان حاکم لیائو از دربار غزنویان (در غزنه،
در افغانستان امروزی) بازدید کردند، او به عنوان «قطا خان» یعنی حاکم قطر توصیف
شد؛ قَطَع یا قِطَع در نوشتههای بیرونی و ابوسعید گردیزی در دهههای بعدی ظاهر میشود.[2]
نظامالملک (1018-1092) محقق و مدیر ایرانی در کتاب خود در باب اداره امور کشور،
از خیتا و چین، ظاهراً به عنوان دو کشور جداگانه[2] (احتمالاً به ترتیب با اشاره
به امپراتوریهای لیائو و سونگ) یاد میکند. واحد پول این نام در جهان اسلام از جایگزینی
سلسله خیتان لیائو با سلسله جورچن جین در اوایل قرن دوازدهم جان سالم به در برد.
تاریخ ایران هنگام توصیف سقوط امپراتوری جین به دست مغولها (1234)، کشور فتح شده
را خیتای یا جِرداج خیتای (یعنی "جِرجِن کتای") توصیف میکند.[2] خود
مغولها در تاریخ مخفی خود (قرن سیزدهم) از خیتانها و قرهخیتانها صحبت میکنند.[2]
در حدود سال ۱۳۴۰ میلادی، فرانچسکو بالدوچی پگولوتی، تاجری اهل فلورانس، کتاب «عمل
تجارت» را گردآوری کرد، راهنمایی در مورد تجارت در چین، کشوری که او آن را «کاتای»
مینامید، و در آن به وسعت خانبالیق (پکن امروزی) و چگونگی مبادله نقره با پول
کاغذی چینی که میتوانست برای خرید اقلام لوکس مانند ابریشم استفاده شود، اشاره
کرد.[5][6] کلمات مرتبط با خیتای هنوز در بسیاری از زبانهای ترکی و اسلاوی برای
اشاره به چین استفاده میشود. اصطلاح مشتق شده از خیتای در زبان اویغور برای چینیهای
هان، هم توسط کاربران و هم توسط مراجع آن، تحقیرآمیز تلقی میشود و مقامات جمهوری
خلق چین تلاش کردهاند تا استفاده از آن را ممنوع کنند.[4] این اصطلاح همچنین به
شدت بر ملیگرایی اویغور دلالت دارد.[7] کَتی و مانگی همچنین ببینید: نامهای چین
§ مانگی هنگامی که مسافران اروپایی و عرب شروع به رسیدن به امپراتوری مغول کردند،
شمال چین تحت کنترل مغولها را با انواع مختلف املا به عنوان کَتی توصیف کردند. این
نام در نوشتههای جووانی دا پیان دل کارپین (حدود 1180-1252) (به صورت کیتایا) و ویلیام
روبروک (حدود 1220-1293) (به صورت کاتایا یا کاتایا) آمده است.[8] در سفرنامه
مارکو پولو در سرزمین قوبلای خان، داستانی با عنوان «جاده کاتیا» آمده است. رشیدالدین
همدانی، ابن بطوطه و مارکو پولو همگی از شمال چین به عنوان کاتیا یاد کردهاند، در
حالی که جنوب چین، که توسط سلسله سونگ اداره میشد، مانگی، مانزی، چین یا سین نامیده
شده است.[8] کلمه مانزی (蠻子) یا
مانگی در زبان چینی یک اصطلاح تحقیرآمیز به معنای «بربرهای جنوب» است (مان در دورههای
اولیه برای توصیف جنوب چین غیرچینی استفاده میشد) و بنابراین توسط چینیها برای
توصیف خود یا کشورشان استفاده نمیشد، اما مغولها آن را برای توصیف مردم و کشور
جنوب چین به کار بردند.[9][10] نامی که معمولاً برای جنوب چین در نقشههای قرون
وسطایی غربی استفاده میشد، مانگی بود، اصطلاحی که هنوز در نقشههای قرن شانزدهم
استفاده میشود.[11] شناسایی چین به عنوان کاتای اطلاعات بیشتر: اروپاییها در چین
قرون وسطی، رابطه چین و روم
ltrleftCathay (/kæˈθeɪ/) is a
historical name for China that was used in Europe. During the early modern
period, Europeans thought of Cathay as a completely separate and distinct
culture from China. As knowledge of East Asia increased, Cathay came to be seen
as the same polity as China. The term "Cathay" became a
poetic name for China. The name Cathay originates from the word Khitan,[1] a para-Mongolic nomadic
people who ruled the Liao dynasty in northern China from 916 to 1125, and who later migrated west
after they were overthrown by the Jin dynasty to form the Qara Khitai empire
(Western Liao dynasty) for another century thereafter. Originally, this name
was the name applied by Central and Western Asians and Europeans to northern
China; the name was also used in Marco Polo's book on his travels in Yuan
dynasty China (he referred to southern China as Mangi). Odoric of Pordenone (d.
1331) also writes about Cathay and the Khan in his travelbooks from
his journey before 1330, perhaps 1321–1330. Contents 1 History 2 Cathay and Mangi 3 Identifying China as Cathay 4 Etymological progression 5 Use in English 6 In the names of organized entities 7 References 7.1 Citations 7.2 Sources History On this 1570 map by Abraham
Ortelius, Cataio is located inland of China (referring to today's Guangdong)
and Chequan (Zhejiang), and borders on "Thebet" in the
southwest and "Camul" in the west. There is also Mangi
(between "Cataio" and Xanton (Shandong)). The objects in
"Cataio" are based on Marco Polo's description and include
the capital Cambalu, Xandu, and a marble bridge. The term Cathay came from the
name for the Khitans. A form of the name Cathai is attested in a Uyghur
Manichaean document circa 1000.[2] The Khitans refer to themselves as Qidan (Khitan small script:
Khita-i small.png; Chinese: 契丹; pinyin: Qìdān), but
in the language of the ancient Uyghurs the final -n or -ń became -y, and this
form may be the source of the name Khitai for later Muslim writers.[3] This version of the name
was then introduced to medieval and early modern Europe via Muslim and Russian
sources.[4] The Khitans were known to Muslim Central Asia: in 1026, the
Ghaznavid court (in Ghazna, in today's Afghanistan) was visited by envoys from
the Liao ruler, he was described as a "Qatā Khan", i.e. the
ruler of Qatā; Qatā or Qitā appears in writings of al-Biruni and Abu Said
Gardezi in the following decades.[2] The Persian scholar and administrator Nizam al-Mulk (1018–1092)
mentions Khita and China in his Book on the Administration of the State,
apparently as two separate countries[2] (presumably, referring to the Liao and Song Empires,
respectively). The name's currency in the Muslim world survived the replacement
of the Khitan Liao dynasty with the Jurchen Jin dynasty in the early 12th century. When
describing the fall of the Jin Empire to the Mongols (1234), Persian history described
the conquered country as Khitāy or Djerdaj Khitāy (i.e., "Jurchen
Cathay").[2] The Mongols themselves, in their Secret History (13th century) talk of
both Khitans and Kara-Khitans.[2] In about 1340
Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, a merchant from Florence,
compiled the Pratica della mercatura, a guide about trade in China, a country
he called Cathay, noting the size of Khanbaliq (modern Beijing) and how
merchants could exchange silver for Chinese paper money that could be used to
buy luxury items such as silk.[5][6] Words related to Khitay are still used in many Turkic and
Slavic languages to refer to China. The ethnonym derived from Khitay in the
Uyghur language for Han Chinese is considered pejorative by both its users and
its referents, and the PRC authorities have attempted to ban its use.[4] The term also strongly
connotes Uyghur nationalism.[7] Cathay and Mangi See also: Names of China § Mangi As European
and Arab travelers started reaching the Mongol Empire, they described the
Mongol-controlled Northern China as Cathay in a number of spelling variants.
The name occurs in the writings of Giovanni da Pian del Carpine (c. 1180–1252) (as
Kitaia), and William of Rubruck (c. 1220–c. 1293) (as Cataya or Cathaia).[8] Travels in the Land of Kublai Khan by
Marco Polo has a story called "The Road to Cathay".
Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, ibn Battuta, and Marco Polo all referred to Northern
China as Cathay, while Southern China, ruled by the Song dynasty, was Mangi,
Manzi, Chin, or Sin.[8] The word Manzi (蠻子) or Mangi is a
derogatory term in Chinese meaning "barbarians of the south"
(Man was used to describe unsinicised Southern China in its earlier periods),
and would therefore not have been used by the Chinese to describe themselves or
their own country, but it was adopted by the Mongols to describe the people and
country of Southern China.[9][10] The name for South China commonly used on Western medieval
maps was Mangi, a term still used in maps in the 16th century.[11] Identifying China as Cathay
Further information: Europeans in Medieval China, Sino-Roman relations, Serica,
and Daqin The division of China into northern and southern parts ruled by, in
succession, the Liao, Jin and Yuan dynasties in the north, and the Song dynasty
in the south, ended in the late 13th century with the conquest of southern China by the Yuan dynasty.
While Central Asia had long known China under names similar to Cathay, that
country was known to the peoples of South-East Asia and India under names
similar to China (cf. e.g. Cina in modern Malay). Meanwhile, in China itself,
people usually referred to the realm in which they lived on the name of the
ruling dynasty, e.g. Da Ming Guo ("the kingdom of the Great
Ming"), or as the "Middle/Central Kingdom" (Zhongguo
中國); see also Names of China for details. When the Portuguese reached
South-East Asia (Afonso de Albuquerque conquering Malacca in 1511) and
the southern coast of China (Jorge Álvares reaching the Pearl River estuary in 1513), they
started calling the country by the name used in South and South-East Asia.[12] It was
not immediately clear to the Europeans whether this China is the same country
as Cathay known from Marco Polo. Therefore, it would not be uncommon for 16th-century maps to
apply the label "China" just to the coastal region already
well known to the Europeans (e.g., just Guangdong on Abraham Ortelius' 1570 map), and to
place the mysterious Cathay somewhere inland. Gerardus Mercator's placing of
the "Kingdom of Cathay" (Cathay Reg.) on the Pacific Coast
north-east of China remained typical for a number of maps published in the
decades to follow It was a small group of Jesuits, led by Matteo Ricci who,
being able both to travel throughout China and to read, learned about the
country from Chinese books and from conversation with people of all walks of
life. During his first 15 years in China (1583–1598) Matteo Ricci formed a strong suspicion that Marco Polo's
"Cathay" is simply the "Tatar" (i.e.,
Mongol) name for the country he was in, i.e. China. Ricci supported his
arguments by numerous correspondences between Marco Polo's accounts and his own
observations: The River "Yangtze" divides the empire into two
halves, with 9 provinces ("kingdoms") south of the river and 6 to the north; Marco
Polo's "Cathay" was just south of
"Tartary", and Ricci learned that there was no other country
between the Ming Empire and "Tartary" (i.e., the lands of
Mongols and Manchus). People in China had not heard of any place called
"Cathay". Most importantly, when the Jesuits first arrived to
Beijing 1598, they also met a number of "Mohammedans" or
"Arabian Turks" – visitors or immigrants from the Muslim
countries to the west of China, who told Ricci that now they were living in the
Great Cathay. This all made them quite convinced that Cathay is indeed China.[13]
China-based Jesuits promptly informed their colleagues in Goa (Portuguese
India) and Europe about their discovery of the Cathay–China identity. This was
stated e.g. in a 1602
letter of Ricci's comrade Diego de Pantoja, which was
published in Europe along with other Jesuits' letters in 1605.[14] The Jesuits in India,
however, were not convinced, because, according to their informants (merchants
who visited the Mughal capitals Agra and Lahore), Cathay – a country that could be reached via Kashgar – had a large Christian
population, while the Jesuits in China had not found any Christians there.[15][16] A
typical early 17th-century depiction of "Cataia" as China's
northeastern neighbour. Jodocus Hondius, 1610 In retrospect, the Central Asian
Muslim informants' idea of the Ming China being a heavily Christian country may
be explained by numerous similarities between Christian and Buddhist
ecclesiastical rituals – from having sumptuous statuary and ecclesiastical
robes to Gregorian chant – which would make the two religions appear externally
similar to a Muslim merchant.[17] This may also have been the genesis of the Prester John myth.
To resolve the China–Cathay controversy, the India Jesuits sent a Portuguese
lay brother, Bento de Góis on an overland expedition north and east, with the
goal of reaching Cathay and finding out once and for all whether it is China or
some other country. Góis spent almost three years (1603–1605) crossing Afghanistan,
Badakhshan, Kashgaria, and Kingdom of Cialis with Muslim trade caravans. In 1605, in
Cialis, he, too, became convinced that his destination is China, as he met the
members of a caravan returning from Beijing to Kashgar, who told them about
staying in the same Beijing inn with Portuguese Jesuits. (In fact, those were
the same very "Saracens" who had, a few months earlier,
confirmed it to Ricci that they were in "Cathay"). De Góis
died in Suzhou, Gansu – the first Ming China city he reached – while waiting
for an entry permit to proceed toward Beijing; but, in the words of Henry Yule,
it was his expedition that made "Cathay... finally disappear from
view, leaving China only in the mouths and minds of men".[18] Not
convinced by the Jesuits, John Speed in 1626 follows Jodocus Hondius' layout: he
shows the chain of Silk Road cities visited by de Góis (Cuchia, Chialis,
Turfan, Camul) – but has it directed not toward China's Shaanxi Sancii, as
shows by de Góis, but toward the mysterious "Cathaya, the Chief
Kingdome of Great Cam", northeast of China. Naturally, Cambalu and
Xandu are shown in Cathay, while Shuntien (Beijing) is in China Ricci's and de
Gois' conclusion was not, however, completely convincing for everybody in
Europe yet. Samuel Purchas, who in 1625
published an English translation of Pantoja's letter and
Ricci's account, thought that perhaps, Cathay still can be found somewhere
north of China.[16] In this period, many cartographers were placing Cathay on the
Pacific coast, north of Beijing (Pekin) which was already well known to
Europeans. The borders drawn on some of these maps would first make Cathay the
northeastern section of China (e.g. 1595
map by Gerardus Mercator), or, later, a region separated
by China by the Great Wall and possibly some mountains and/or wilderness (as in
a 1610
map by Jodocus Hondius, or a 1626 map by John Speed). J. J. L. Duyvendak
hypothesized that it was the ignorance of the fact that
"China" is the mighty "Cathay" of Marco
Polo that allowed the Dutch governor of East Indies Jan Pieterszoon Coen to
embark on an "unfortunate" (for the Dutch) policy of treating
the Ming Empire as "merely another 'oriental' kingdom".[19] Cathay
is finally gone: this 1689
map by Giacomo Cantelli da Vignola from Modena identifies
it (and Mangi) with China The last nail into the coffin of the idea of there
being a Cathay as a country separate from China was, perhaps, driven in 1654, when
the Dutch Orientalist Jacobus Golius met with the China-based Jesuit Martino
Martini, who was passing through Leyden. Golius knew no Chinese, but he was
familiar with Zij-i Ilkhani, a work by the Persian astronomer Nasir al-Din
al-Tusi, completed in 1272, in which he described the Chinese ("Cathayan")
calendar.[20] Upon meeting Martini, Golius started reciting the names of the
12 divisions into which, according to Nasir al-Din, the
"Cathayans" were dividing the day – and Martini, who of
course knew no Persian, was able to continue the list. The names of the 24 solar terms matched
as well. The story, soon published by Martini in the
"Additamentum" to his Atlas of China, seemed to have finally
convinced most European scholars that China and Cathay were the same.[16] Even
then, some people still viewed Cathay as distinct from China, as did John
Milton in the 11th Book of his Paradise Lost (1667).[21] In 1939, Hisao Migo (Japanese: 御江久夫, a Japanese botanist[22][23]) published a paper describing Iris cathayensis (meaning
"Chinese iris") in the Journal of the Shanghai Science
Institute.[24] Etymological progression Further information: Names of China
Below is the etymological progression from Khitan to Cathay as the word
travelled westward: Mongolian/Classical Mongolian: ᠬᠢᠲᠠᠳQitad, Хятад (Khyatad) Uyghur:
خىتای (Xitay) Persian: ختای (khatāy) Kyrgyz: Кытай
(Kytai) Kazakh:
قىتای, Қытай, Qıtay Kazan Tatar: Кытай (Qıtay) Russian:
Китай (Kitay) Ukrainian: Китай (Kytaj) Belarusian: Кітай (Kitaj) Bulgarian:
Китай (Kitay) Georgian: ხატაეთი (Khataeti (archaic or obsolete)) Uzbek: Хитой
(Xitoy) Polish: Kitaj Serbian: Kitaj (Китаj) Croatian: Kitaj Medieval Latin:
Cataya, Kitai Italian: Catai Spanish: Catay Portuguese: Cataio or Catai French,
English, German, Dutch, Scandinavian:[citation needed] Cathay In many Turkic
and Slavic languages a form of "Cathay" (e.g., Russian:
Китай, Kitay) remains the usual modern name for China. In Javanese, the word ꦏꦠꦻ (Katai, Katé) exists,[25] and it refers to 'East Asian', literally meaning 'dwarf' or
'short-legged' in today's language.[citation needed] Use in English In the
English language, the word Cathay was sometimes used for China, although
increasingly only in a poetic sense, until the 19th century when it was completely replaced
by "China". A person from Cathay (i.e., a Chinese person) was
also written in English as a Cathayan or a Cataian. However the terms
"China" and "Cathay" have histories of
approximately equal length in English. The term is still used poetically. The
Hong Kong flag bearing airline is named Cathay Pacific. One of the greatest
commercial banks of Taiwan is named Cathay United Bank. The novel Creation by
Gore Vidal uses the name in reference to "those states between the Yangtze
and the Yellow Rivers" as the novel is set in the fifth and sixth
centuries B.C. Ezra Pound's Cathay (1915) is a collection of classical Chinese poems translated freely
into English verse. In Warhammer Fantasy, a fantastical reimagination of the
world used as a setting for various novels and games produced by Games
Workshop, Grand Cathay is the largest human empire, situated in the far east of
the setting and based on medieval China.[26] In the names of organized
entities Cathay is more prevalent as a proper noun, such as Cathay Pacific
Airways or Cathay Hotel. Cathay Bank is a bank with multiple branches
throughout the United States and other countries. Cathay Cineplex is a cinema
operator in Singapore operated by the Cathay Organisation. Cathay United Bank
and Cathay Life Insurance are a financial services company and an insurance
company respectively, both located in Taiwan. References Citations
"Cathay". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Retrieved 23 June 2009. Wittfogel (1946), p. 1. Sinor, D. (1998), "Chapter 11 – The Kitan and the Kara Kitay", in Asimov, M.S.;
Bosworth, C.E. (eds.), History of Civilisations of Central Asia, vol. 4 part I, UNESCO
Publishing, ISBN 92-3-103467-7
James A. Millward & Peter C. Perdue (2004). S.F.
Starr (ed.). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland. M.E. Sharpe. p. 43. ISBN 9781317451372.
Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2011). Western Civilization: a Brief History, Boston: Wadsworth,
Cencage Learning, p. 183, ISBN 0-495-57147-4. See the following source for the title "Cathay and
the Way Tither": Editors of the Encyclopædia Britannica.
"Francesco Balducci Pegolotti." Encyclopædia Britannica
(online source). Accessed 6 September 2016. Dillon, Michael (2003). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Far Northwest. p. 177.
Wittfogel (1946), p. 2 Henry Yule; Henri Cordier (1967), Cathay and the Way Thither: Preliminary essay on the
intercourse between China and the western nations previous to the discovery of
the Cape route, p. 177
Tan Koon San (15 August 2014). Dynastic China: An Elementary History. The Other Press. p. 247. ISBN 9789839541885. Donald
F. Lach (15 July 2008). Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume I: The Century of
Discovery. The University of Chicago Press. p. 817. ISBN 9780226467085. Matteo Ricci, writing less
than a century after the events, states: "Today the people of Cochin
and the Siamese as well, from whom the Portuguese learned to call the empire
China, call this country Cin". (Gallagher (1953), pp. 6–7) Gallagher (trans.) (1953), pp. 311–312. Also, in p.7, Ricci and Trigault unambiguously state, "the
Saracens, who live to the west, speak of it [China] as Cathay". Lach
& Van Kley (1993), p. 1565. Pantoja's letter appeared in Relación de la entrade de algunos
padres de la Compania de Iesus en la China (1605) Yule, pp. 534–535 Lach &
Kley (1993), pp. 1575–1577
Gallagher, p. 500; Yule, pp. 551–552
Henry Yule (1866), p. 530. Duyvendak, J. J. L. (1950), "Review of
"Fidalgos in the Far East, 1550–1770. Fact and Fancy in the History of Macao" by C. R.
Boxer", T'oung Pao, Second Series, BRILL, 39 (1/3): 183–197, JSTOR 4527279 (specifically pp. 185–186) van
Dalen, Benno; Kennedy, E.S.; Saiyid, Mustafa K., "The Chinese-Uighur
Calendar in Tusi's Zij-i Ilkhani", Zeitschrift für Geschichte der
Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften 11 (1997) 111–151
"Why Did Milton Err on Two Chinas?" Y. Z.
Chang, The Modern Language Review, Vol. 65, No. 3 (Jul., 1970), pp. 493–498. De-Yuan Hong; Stephen Blackmore (2015). The Plants of China.
Cambridge University Press. pp. 222–223. ISBN 9781107070172. "中国植物采集简史I — 1949年之前外国人在华采集（三）" (in Chinese). 中国科学院昆明植物研究所标本馆. 1 December 2014. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
"Iridaceae Iris cathayensis Migo". ipni.org (International
Plant Names Index). Retrieved 21 January 2014. "Ini Delapan Ramalan Joyoboyo tentang Nusantara yang
Dipercaya Sakti". Detik News. (in Indonesian, transcription of King
Jayabaya's prophecy) Zak, Robert (19 October 2021). "Our first look at Total War: Warhammer 3's Cathay army in action is
spectacular". PC Gamer. Retrieved 11 January 2022. Sources Karl A. Wittfogel
and Feng Chia-Sheng, "History of Chinese Society: Liao (907–1125)".
in Transactions of American Philosophical Society (vol. 36, Part 1, 1946). Available on Google Books.
Trigault, Nicolas S. J. "China in the Sixteenth Century: The Journals
of Mathew Ricci: 1583–1610". English translation by Louis J. Gallagher, S.J. (New
York: Random House, Inc. 1953) of the Latin work, De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas based
on Matteo Ricci's journals completed by Nicolas Trigault. Of particular
relevance are Book Five, Chapter 11, "Cathay and China: The Extraordinary Odyssey of a
Jesuit Lay Brother" and Chapter 12, "Cathay and China
Proved to Be Identical." (pp. 499–521 in 1953 edition). There is also full Latin
text available on Google Books. "The Journey of Benedict Goës from
Agra to Cathay" – Henry Yule's translation of the relevant chapters of
De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas, with detailed notes and an introduction.
In: Yule, Sir Henry, ed. (1866). Cathay and the way thither: being a collection of medieval
notices of China. Issue 37 of Works issued by the Hakluyt Society. Translated by Yule, Sir Henry.
Printed for the Hakluyt society. pp. 529–596. Lach, Donald F.; Van Kley, Edwin J. (1994), Asia in the Making of
Europe, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-46734-4. Volume III, A Century of
Advance, Book Four, East Asia. vte Liao dynasty topics History Goryeo–Khitan
War First conflict Second conflict Third conflict Chanyuan Treaty Northern Liao
Western Liao Battle of Qatwan Eastern Liao Later Liao See also Khitan people
Yelü clan Emperors Memorial for Yelü Yanning Administrative divisions Coinage
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