[1] - کهربا. [ ک َ رُ ] (نف مرکب )
رباینده ٔ که (مخفف کاه ). که رباینده . || (اِ مرکب ) مخفف کاه رباست . هرکه با
خود دارد از علت یرقان ایمن باشد. (برهان ) (آنندراج ).ماده ٔ سقزی مستحاث زردرنگی
که در سواحل دریای بالتیک یافت می گردد و چون آن را مالش دهند اجسام سبک را جذب می
کند و بدین جهت است که کهربا و کاهربا نامیده می شود. (ناظم الاطباء). از اقوال
قدما ظاهر می گردد که کهربا و سندروس یک جنس باشند و سندروس مخصوص بلاد هندو کهربا
مختص بلاد مغرب و شمال باشد و در ربودن کاه هر دو شریکند و سندروس به اندک حرارتی
که از مالیدن او به هم رسد جذب کاه می کند و کهربا محتاج به مالیدن زیاد است و در
سندروس سرخی غالب است و در کهربا زردی و صلابت و در حین سوختن بوی شاخ سوخته از آن
ظاهر گردد. و بهترین کهربا آن است که در ساحل بحر مغرب و از مزارع مغرب به هم رسد.
(از اختیارات بدیعی ). رطوبتی است که از برگ دووم یعنی درخت مقل مکی چکد چون عسل ،
پس بسته شود و چون آن را شکنند چیزهایی از قبیل مگس و سنگ و کاه در درون دارد و
دلیل بر آن است که در اول روان بوده است . و اینکه پاره ای گویند صمغ درخت جوز
رومی است غلط است . (ازبحر الجواهر) (از یادداشت به خط مرحوم دهخدا). کهربا .
خوروسفورون . ایلقطرون . (از یادداشت به خط مرحوم دهخدا). ابن البیطار می گوید همه
ٔ مترجمان دیسقوریدوس و جالینوس در ترجمه ٔ کلمه ٔ سوکسینوم به غلط رفته اند که آن
را صمغ حور رومی شمرده اند چه صفاتی که برای کهربا آمده است ، در صمغ حور رومی
نیست و حق با ابن البیطار است چه کهربا یعنی سوکسینوم عنبر اشهب است . (از یادداشت
به خط مرحوم دهخدا). در برخی کتب صمغ مترشح از برخی درختان دیگراز قبیل درخت
تبریزی (حور رومی ) را به نام کهربا یاد کرده اند به مناسبت خواص مشابهی که صمغ
این گونه درختان با کهربا دارد. (فرهنگ فارسی معین ).
*کهربا.[ ک َ رَ ]
(معرب ، اِ) کهرباء. صمغ درختی است که چون مالیده شود کاه را جذب کند، و در این
خاصیت با سندروس مشترک است . معرب کاه ربای فارسی است یعنی جاذب کاه ، و پاره ای
آن را کهرباة یا کهرباءة و نسبت بدان راکهربی گویند، و از آن است : سیال الکهربی .
(از اقرب الموارد). رجوع به ماده ٔ قبل شود. || نیرویی است که در بعضی از اجسام بر
اثر مالش یا حرارت یافعل و انفعالات شیمیایی پیدا می شود و جذب کردن و تولید نور و
لرزاندن اعصاب حیوانات و تجزیه ٔ آب و نمکهااز خواص و آثار آن است . (از المنجد).
الکتریسیته .
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89. نخستین باری که نام کهربا در منابع چینی آمده از
یافت شدنش در کیـ پین (کشمیر) گوید.[1] سپس
ازیافت شدنش در تا تسین (خاور هلنی) 2 و ایران ساسانی
آگاه می شویم. 3 بندهشن که پهلوی این واژه، کهرُپای، Kahrupāī را
بدست می دهد درستی این گزارش را روشن میکند. 4 این واژه
همبرابر است با کهربا، Kāhrubā در پارسی
امروز که واژهای است مرکب برساخته از کاه و رُبا ("کشنده، بلند
کننده"). 5 عربها کهربای خود را از ایرانیان گرفتهاند
(نخست در کتاب ابنالعباس)؛ و بین سده های نهم و دهم از عربی وارد زبان سریانی
شد. 6 در زبان ارمنی آن را kahribā و kahribar میگویند. همین واژه راهی باختر نیز شده است: carabe در اسپانیایی، carabe یا charabe در پرتغالی، carabe در
ایتالیایی، carabé در
فرانسوی؛ در بیزانسی؛ charabar در زبان
کومانیایی* در دوره مینگ کهربا از شمار فرآورده های هرات، ختن و
سمــــــــــــــــرقند شمرده شده است. 7 گــــــــــــــونه
ای ویژه از آن به نام "کهربای زرین" ( kin p‛o) به عربستان (تیین ـ فان / T‛ien-fan) نسبت داده شده است. 8
اینک، این پرسش که خود ایرانیان کهربا را از کجا
آوردند؟ یاکوب9 از بررسی منابع عربی به این نتیجه رسیده است
که تازیان کهربا را از منطقه بالتیک دریافت کردند*. اهمیت فراوان کهربای بالتیک در
تاریخ بازرگانی بر کسی پوشیده نیست، اما گویا کارشناسان در این راه زیاده روی هائی
کردهاند و این حقیقت به سادگی نادیده گرفته شده که کهربا در بسیاری از جاهای جهان
یافت میشود. نمی گویم بخش بزرگی از کهربایی که تازیان به دست میآوردند
از منابع بالتیک تأمین نمیشده است، اما هر چه جستم نتوانستم نتیجه بگیرم که این
نظریه (چون نظریه ای بیش نیست) سرراست از داده هائی که نویسندگان عرب پیش گذارده
اند برخاسته باشد. آنان بیش از این نمی گویند که کهربا در کشورهای
روسیه و بلغارستان فراوان است، اما چه کسی میتواند با بی گمانی بگوید
کهربای روسیه یکسره از منطقه بالتیک می آمده است؟ روشن است که کهربا در جنوب
روسیه و رومانی یافت میشود. ابن بیطار هم در این مورد چیزی درباره روسیه و
بلغارستان نمی داند و تنها با یاد از کتاب الغافقی
(alJafiki) [کذا در متن! Al-Ghafiqi] از دو گونه کهربا گوید، که یکی از یونان و خاور می آید و دیگری
که در بخش باختری اسپانیا در سرزمین های کرانه ای و زیر زمین یافت میشود. [1] پلینی گوید
بگفته فیلمون کهربا ماده ای است سنگوارهای و در دو نقطه از سرزمین
سکوتیا یافت میشد: یکجا سفیدِ رنگ پریده بنام electrum ، و جای دیگر
سرخ است و sualiternicum نام
دارد. 2 احتمالاً این کهربای ایشغوزها یا کهربای جنوب روسیه
را ایشغوزهای ایرانی به کشور خود بردهاند. برای روشن سازی همیشگی پرسش
خاستگاه کهربا در ایران باستان و عربستان پیش از هر کار نیاز است شمار
ی کهربای ایرانی و عربی را که براستی از دوره باستان باشد به دست آورده تجزیه
شیمیایی کنیم. همچنین میدانیم
ذخایر پرشمار تأمین کهربا در دوران باستان مدتها پیش به پایان رسیده است.
به همین دلیل است که پلینی و چینیهای باستان بر سر این واقعیت توافق دارند
که کهربا محصول هند است، هرچند اینک هیچ معدن کهربایی در آنجا یافت نمیشود. 3 پیشتر
ها کهربا در بخش یون ـ نان و حتی در نیایشگاه مقدس بودائی
هوا ـ شان (Hwa-šan) در
شن ـ سی یافت میشد. 4
یاکوب5 هشدار داده است که گمان اشتقاق واژه
چینی از کهرپای، kahrupāī پهلوی
مشکلات حل ناشدنی ترتیب تاریخی را پیش میآورد. مشکلات آواشناختیِ این گمان
از این هم پیچیدهتر است، زیرا واژه چینی hu-p‛o در
دوران باستان gu-bak* تلفظ میشده
و هرگونه شباهت ادعایی این دو واژه به باد میرود. احتمال اینکه واژه
یونانی harpax6 پایه این واژه چینی باشداز این هم کمتر است، و به باورمن
این واژه چینی از یکی از زبانهای باستانی یون ـ نان به نام شن (šan) یا
تایی (T‛ai) گرفته شده که چینیها دست کم از سده نخست میلادی گونه
ای کهربا را از آنجا میآوردند. از دید من، خاستگاه واژه چینی tun-mou برای کهربا، که
ون چون (wan Č‛un) فیلسوف نخستین و تنها کسی بود که آن را به کار
برد، نیز همان جاست. [1]
برخلاف
گمان کلاپرات (Klaproth)،
واژه اویغوری kubik خاستگاه
واژه چینی نیست؛ برعکس، این واژه اویغوری (مثل xobax در زبان کرهای) آوانگاشت واژه چینی
است. واژههای xuba در
زبان مغولی و xôba در
زبان مانچویی نیز به همین ترتیب؛ جز آنکه این صورتها بعد ها که همخوان
پایانی bak یا bek در چینی دیگر تلفظ نمیشد
از این زبان وام گرفته شدهاند. 2
از ساینو-ایرانیکا
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کهربا: صمغ جوز رومی است. نیکوترین آن
شمع رنگ بود که به زردی زند. (اختیارات ص 381). بولس «کهربا» را «یلیقطرون» نام
نهاده است. و به لغت رومی «القطرون» گویند و سری گوید کهربا نوعی است از مهرهها
که به واسطه آب بر ساحل دریای مغرب میافتد و بولس گوید کهربا صمغ درخت جوز رومی
است که از او سیلان کند و منجمد شود و درخت او به درخت جوز معروف نیست، بلکه او
جوز دیگر است و درخت او مشهور نبود در بلاد روم، بلکه در مواضع مخصوص بود. و حمزه
گوید یکی از خواص کهربا آن است که او کاهها به خود جذب کند و نام او به پارسی از
این جهت کردهاند و نزدیک او جوهر کهربا معدنی است نه نباتی. (صیدنه ص 615).
یادگار، در دانش پزشکی و داروسازی، متن،
ص: 361
///////////
کهربا. صمغ جوز رومی است نیکوترین
آن شمعرنگ بود که بزردی زند و طبیعت آن سرد است و خشک و خشکی وی در دویم بود و
گویند در وی حرارتی اندک بود و گویند گرم بود در سیم خون را ببندد از هر موضع که
بود و خفقان را نافع بود و مقوی دل و مفرح بود و چون نیم مثقال به آب سرد بیاشامند
قی ببندد و با مصطلی قوت معده بدهد و درد معده را نافع بود و عسر البول را سود دهد
و خوزی گوید قطع رعاف بکند و چون بر ورمهای گرم بیامیزند نافع بود و اگر سحق کرده
بر سوختگی آتش لطوخ کنند نافع بود و رازی گوید خون حیض ببندد و بدل وی طباشیر بود
و ساوفرطس گوید بدل وی سندروس بود
صاحب مخزن الادویه مینویسد: کهربا
فارسی است یا معرب کاهربای فارسی و بیونانی دیامنیطس و بسریانی حمرما و برومی
میغیرس و بهندی کیپور و بعربی قرن البحر و مصباح الروم نیز نامند
ابو ریحان در صیدنه مینویسد: بولس
کهربا را یلیقطرون نام نهاده و برومی القطرون گویند.
اختیارات بدیعی
//////////////
کهربا به صمغ (انگم) فسیل شدهٔ درخت گفته میشود که معمولاً به خاطر رنگ زیبایش دارای
ارزش است. معمولاً ازاین ماده برای ساخت اشیاء تزئینی و جواهر استفاده میشود.
عمده کهربای جهان عمری بین ۳۰ تا ۹۰ میلیون سال دارد. گاهی در داخل کهربا حشرات و
حتی پستانداران کوچک به دام افتاده روزگاران پیش از تاریخ نیز یافت شده اند.
محتویات
کهربا در لغت از دو واژه کاه و ربا
ساخته شده است و به معنای رباینده کاه است. این معنا به این دلیل برای این
ماده به کار می رود که به هنگام مالیده شدن آن به یک پارچه یا امثال آن، در سطح
کهربا الکتریسیته ساکن القاء می شود و این الکتریسیته ساکن
باعث ربایش کاه می گردد.
یک پشه و یک مگس به دام افتاده در
کهربا، متعلق به حدود 40 تا 60 میلیون سال پیش
کهربا در گروه فسیلهای صمغی در ترکیبهای آلی (سنگهای ارگانیک) که منشا گیاهی یا
جانوری دارند قرار دارد. در دوران قدیم زمین شناسی به صورت صمغ از درختان کاج
مخروطی شکل به نام (پیتوس-سوکسینیفرا) خارج شده و پس از خشک و سخت شدن به صورت فسیل و سنگ درآمده است.
کهربا از انواع ناهمگونی از مواد رزینی (صمغی) تشکیل شده که کما بیش در الکل،
اتر و کلوروفرم محلول اند و همچنین مواد نامحلول. فرمول کلی کهربا C۱۰H۱۶O است
سختی کهربا در مناطق مختلف تفاوت هایی
دارد، کهرباهای جوان تر، نرم تر از آنهایی هستند که مدت های طولانی زیر خاک مدفون
بوده اند.
کشورهای ایتالیا، جمهوری دومینیکن،
رومانی، برمه، چین، کانادا، مکزیک، ژاپن، روسیه و آمریکا دارای معدن کهربا هستند.
کهربا-که از اوایل دوره زمین شناسی کرتاسه وجود داشته- توسط آفتیم آکرااز کوههای
لبنان در جنوب بیروت استخراج شده است.معروف ترین کهربا ها در ساحل لهستان و شوروی
سابق یافت می شوند. بزرگ ترین معدن کهربا در غرب کالیمینگراد در روسیه در عمق ۳۰
متری زمین در زیر شن و ماسه است.
این رنگ که در زبان انگلیسی Amber تلفظ می گردد، به رنگی بین رنگ های نارنجی و زرد گفته می شود.
در صنایع روشنایی این رنگ کاربرد گسترده ای دارد، به طوری که گاهی اوقات در کنار
نورهای اصلی (آبی، سبز، قرمز) به عنوان کمکی برای ساخت طیف رنگی مورد استفاده قرار
می گیرد.
ویکیپدیای انگلیسیhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber
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به عربی کهرمان:
الكهرمان راتنج متحجر من الأشجار الصنوبرية المنقرضة
في بعض مناطق الغابات الصنوبرية العالمية وتحجرت وتشكلت قبل الآف السنين. الكهرمان
لا يعتبر إطلاقاً من مجموعات الأحجار الكريمة المعدنية
الأساسية وإنما مواد عضوية متحجرة
بمعنى من المواد النباتية العضوية. ولذلك هو هش ويبعث روائح الشجر الصنوبري عند
فركه باليد أو إحراقه ويتدرج لونه في العادة من الأصفر إلى أصفر
الداكن, ويوجد إما بأشكال دائرية أو كتل غير منتظمة الشكل أو بشكل حبوب أو قطرات. هو هش قليلاً
ويبعث رائحة مقبولة عند فركه باليدين, وعند إحراقه يصدر لهباً لامعاً ورائحة زكية
ويصبح كهربائياً سلبياً بالاحتكاك. توجد أصناف من الحشرات المنقرضة
مغلفة أحياناً في عينات الكهرمان.
تجدر الإشارة إلى أن
الكهرمان الدومينيكي لا يتم تحسينه بالحرارة، أو بعلاج النفط، كما ولا يتم تعقيمه بالموصدة مثل الكثير من
عنبر دول البلطيق. أضف إلى أنه
لا يتم استخدام أي كهرمان مضغوط. فهذه التقنيات ليست معروفة حتى في تلك المناطق.
كما وأن الألوان الزرقاء، والخضراء، والأرجوانية يمكن رؤيتها بسبب أشعة الشمس ما فوق البنفسجية
ومصادر أخرى للنور. وهذا يعني أنه الكهرمان فلوري ونتيجة لذلك فيمكنه أيضاً أن
يتميز عن الكهرمان الذي تم تلوينه وتحسينه اصطناعياً بكونه عنبراً أصلياً.
محتويات
الكهرمان لفظ فارسي عربيه العنبر
الأشهب.[1] أصله غير معروف، والظاهر أنه مشتق من
لفظة كهرم بزيادة الألف والنون للنسبة، معناها الأعمل
والأشد تأثيرا، وأصلها كرتمه بمعنى المؤثر والعامل.[2]
كلمة كهرمان
بالتركية أو قهرمان معناها البطل.
حشرات داخل الكهرمان
يتكون من مادة شبة
صلبة غير متبلورة عضوية وغير منتظمة تفرز عن طريق الجيوب والقنوات خلايا النباتات.
يعتبر العنبر متغاير الخصائص من حيث التركيب ولكنه متناسق من حيث الأجساد
الراتينجية المتعددة فهو أكثر ميولا للذوبان في الكحول وسائل
الأثير والكلوروفورم والتي
ترتبط وتتحد مع عناصر أخرى (مادة حمرية) التي لا تذوب
أو تتحلل، ويعتبر الكهرمان مجموعة من عناصر كيمائيه المتبلمرة وهي أتحادات جزئيين
أو أكثر من مركب ما لتشكيل مركب ذي وزن
جزئي أكبر بمعنى تحول مركب ما إلى آخر من أجزاء عدة متماثلة.ولانه لين ولزج فانه
يحتوي في ثناياه في كثير من الأحيان حشراتوالفقاريات الصغيرة وبذور أو أجسام غريبة التي تلتصق به خلال
مرحلة الانتقال إلى حالة التحجر وتوجد أيضا أصناف من الحشرات المنقرضة مغلفة
أحيانا في عينات الكهرمان.
بسبب تنوع الشجر الصمغي المتحجر
فقد تنوعت أنواع وألوان وأشكال العنبر,
فالاسم عنبر تعني اللون الأصفر أو البرتقالي لكن ألوانه تبدأ من الأبيض - الأصفر -
البرتقالي - احمر- البني يصل لدرجة الأسود، ويتدرج كل لونه ما بين درجات المزيج
اللوني فمثلا من اصفر قاتم إلى اصفر شاحب ليموني، وهناك ألوان نادرة مثل الأحمر
العنبري ويطلق عليه اسم العنبر
الأحمر والعنبر
الأخضر وهناك أنواع نادرة جدا تحمل اللون الأزرق.
تم الحصول عليه في العصور
القديمة من ساحل بحر البلطيق الجنوبي وجمهورية الدومينيكان ما
زال موجودا إلى الآن. ويوجد أيضا كميات صغيرة فيصقلية، رومانيا، سايبيريا، غرينلاند، مينامار (المعروفة
سابقا ببورما)، أستراليا، والولايات المتحدة.وتعتبر بلدان
البلطيق وامتدادها شرقا إلى روسيا وتتحجر فية أنواع
من الحشرات والقوارض تختلف عن
مناطق أخرى وبخاصة اجزاء من سيبيريا من أكبر
مخزونات العالم ومن ثم تأتي دولة الدومنيكان ولكل منها جودة خاصة به يستعمل
الكهرمان في الفنون وفي صناعة المجوهرات، حمالات السيجار، وسدادات الانابيب.
- محمد
أبو غوش (2009) الأحجار الكريمة: خمسون ألف عام في
كتاب. عمان، الأردن
به عبری:
עִנְבָּר הוא אבן חן הנוצרת מהתאבנות שרף עצים במעבה האדמה. מקורות
הענבר הם מחצבים, בעיקר באזור הים הבלטי או בצורתם השכיחה ביותר, לחוף נהר הדנובה, שם ידוע על מציאת הענבר כבר בימי קדם. מעריכים כי בעברית המקראית נקרא הענבר "חשמל", וזאת על-סמך תרגום השבעים, אשר תרגם את המילה "חשמל" בפסוק "ומתוכה כעין החשמל
מתוך האש" (יחזקאל, א', ד')ל-ήλεκτρον (אלקטרון).
חומרים מסוימים, למשל צמר, נטענים במטען חשמלי כאשר משפשפים אותם בענבר. היוונים הקדמונים שמו לב לתופעה זו, ועל פי השם
היווני לענבר, "אלקטרון", כונתה התופעה החשמלית. כמו כן השם
"ענבר" מתאר גון צבע צהוב או כתום נוטה למוזהב.
הענבר הוזכר כמקור פוטנציאלי למציאת שאריות DNA של חיות שנכחדו, דוגמת דינוזאורים, על ידי מיצויו מדם החיה שנמצץ על ידי חרקשעקץ אותה, וזמן קצר
אחר כך נלכד בשרף צמיגי ונכלא באבן
הענבר. על בסיס רעיון זה נכתבה עלילתו של הספר והסרט "פארק היורה" למרות שהתגלה שהרעיון לא נכון מכיוון שהDNA שבדם החיה שנמצץ על ידי החרק צריך תנאי קור כדי לשמור על צורתו ולא לההרס,
ומכיוון שהיה לכוד בתוך ענבר מתחת לאדמה אז הDNA לא היה בתנאים המתאימים.
הרמב"ם מזהה את הענבר ככיפת הירדן שהוא אחד מסימני קטורת הסמים שהיו הכוהנים מקטירים פעמיים בכל יום בבית המקדש.
בדורנו ניתן לייצר גם ענבר מלאכותי. ואחת הדרכים לבדיקת הענבר היא הכנסתו למי
מלח: ענבר אמיתי יצוף.
//////////////
به پنجابی عنبر:
عنبر کسے رکھ دی
پتھر بنی ہوئی گوند ہوندی اے۔
////////////
به کردی کَریبان،
کَهریبان:
Karîban an kehrîban an
jî kevirê teyîsok benîştê kacê (Pinus) yê fosîlkirî ye.
Bi taybetî, li qeraxên başûrê Deryaya
Baltîktê dîtin. Sert e û rengê wî zer û spî yan bi sore ve ye. Pircar şefaf
e û mirov dikare tê de mêş û mûr an perçeyin giya bibîne.
Li
Kurdistanê karîbana reş (kevirê Erzîromê, kevirê Oltiyê) heye.
/////////////
به آذری کِهرِبا:
Kəhrəba —
qiymətli daş. Kəhrəbadan dərman istehsalında istifadə olunur.
////////////////////////
به ترکی کهریبار:
Kehribar
Vikipedi,
özgür ansiklopedi
Kehribar süs
eşyası yapımında kullanılan açık sarıdan kızıla kadar çeşitli renklerde, yarı
saydam, kolay kırılabilen ve ağaç reçinesifosilidir. Kehribara
yapışan fosilleşmiş böcek,yaprak ve çiçek kalıntıları
diğer taşlarda görülmeyen önemli özelliklerdendir. Bu kalıntıların incelenmesı
eski devirler hakkında aydınlatıcı bilgilerin edinilmesine yardımcı olmaktadır.
Farklı tonlarda işlenmemiş amberler.
Kehribar, çamgiller
(Pinaceae)
familyasından, bir çam türü
olan Pinus succinifera ağaçlarının fosilleşmişreçinesidir
Toplumlarda bazı süs eşya yapımında
kullanılan açık sarıdan kızıla kadar çeşitli renklerde yarı saydam,
kolay kırılabilen ve bir yere gömüldüğü zaman ufak cisimleri kendine çekme
özelliği kazanan bir fosildir. Baltık Denizi'nden
(Rusya, Polonya)
çıkarılan kehribar, yüzyıllardan beri kadınların süs eşyalarından en gözde
sayılan taşlardan biri olarak benimsenmiştir. Parlaklık ve renk açısından onu
hiçbir saydam taş ile
kıyaslamak mümkün değildir. Kehribara yapışan fosilleşmiş böcekler, yabani
bitkilerin fazla oluşu, diğer taşlarda görülmeyen önemli özelliklerdendir.
Dünya kehribar yataklarının %90'nı Rusya'nın Kaliningrad Bölgesinde bulunmaktadır.
Avrupa'da kehribar yatakları en çok Rusya, Ukrayna, Romanya, İsveç, İngiltere, Hollanda ve Sicilya'da
görülmektedir. Kehribar ortalama 25 ile 40 m arasında değişen
bir derinlikte ve eski devirlerde meydana gelendenizaltı çökeltilerinin
iki tabakası arasında damarlar şeklinde bulunmaktadır. Buna mavi toprak denilmektedir.
Bu kehribarın ikinci vatanıdır. Birinci vatanı ise bugünkü İskandinav ve
Polonya Baltık Denizi'nin büyük bir kısmını içine alan
sahalardır. Buralarda bir zamanlar büyük ormanların bulunduğu tahmin
edilmektedir. Kıtalar arasındaki büyük değişikliklerin sonucunda bu bölgeler
sular altında kalmış ve uzun seneler sonucu toplanançam sakızı
kütleleri deniz suyuyla
sürüklenip gitmişti. Bunlar üzerine kum ve çakıl taşlarının
kaplanması ile mavitoprak olarak
bilinen tabaka hasıl olmuştur. Yapılan tetkikler sonucunda ilim adamlarının
verdikleri kararlardır.
Çok beğenilen bu süs eşyası yanında, kullanılan taşın
içindeki böcek, yaprak ve çiçek kalıntıları
hiçbir zaman bozulmayacak şekilde mumyalanmıştır. Bunlar eski devirler hakkında
aydınlatıcı bilgilerin edinilmesine yardımcı olmaktadır. Kehribarda
deterpenik reçine asitleri, rezenler ve biraz uçucu yağ bulunur.
Kehribardan çeşitli kadın eşyaları
yanında, tesbih ve
ağızlık da yapılmaktadır. Eskiden uyarıcı ve antispazmodik olarak da
kullanılırdı. Bugün ilaç olarak da kullanılmaktadır. Türkiye'de
kehribar genellikle gösterişli tesbihyapımında
kullanılmaktadır.
به تاگالوگی (فیلیپینی)
عنبر:
///////////////
Amber
From
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Amber
(disambiguation).
Amber pendants made of modified amber. The
oval pendant is 52 by 32 mm (2.0 by
1.3 in).
Part of a series on
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An ant inside Baltic amber
A mosquito in amber
The Amber Room was reconstructed using new
amber fromKaliningrad
National Archaeological Museum of Siritide
to Matera
Unpolished amber stones
Wood resin,
the source of amber
Extracting Baltic amber from Holocene
deposits, Gdansk, Poland
Unique colors of Baltic amber. Polished
stones.
Fishing for amber on the coast of Baltic
Sea. Winter storms throw out amber nuggets. Close to Gdansk, Poland.
Amber is fossilized tree resin (not sap),
which has been appreciated for its color and natural beauty since Neolithic times.[2] Much valued from antiquity to the present as a
gemstone, amber is made into a variety of decorative objects.[3] Amber is used as an ingredient in perfumes, as a
healing agent in folk medicine, and as jewelry.
There are five classes of amber, defined on the basis of
their chemical constituents. Because it originates as a soft, sticky tree
resin, amber sometimes contains animal and plant material as inclusions. Amber
occurring in coal seams is also called resinite, and the term
ambrite is applied to that found specifically within New Zealand coal seams.[4]
Contents
The English word amber derives
from Arabic ʿanbar عنبر[5] (cognate
with Middle Persian ambar[6]) viaMiddle Latin ambar and Middle French ambre. The word was
adopted in Middle English in
the 14th century as referring to what is now known as ambergris (ambre gris or
"grey amber"), a solid waxy substance derived from the sperm whale. In the Romance languages, the sense of the word had
come to be extended to Baltic amber (fossil resin) from as early as the late
13th century. At first called white or yellow amber (ambre jaune), this
meaning was adopted in English by the early 15th century. As the use of
ambergris waned, this became the main sense of the word.[5]
The two substances ("yellow amber" and
"grey amber") conceivably became associated or confused because they
both were found washed up on beaches. Ambergris is less dense than water and
floats, whereas amber is too dense to float, though less dense than stone.[7]
The classical names for amber, Latin electrum and Ancient Greek ἤλεκτρον (ēlektron),
are connected to a term ἠλέκτωρ (ēlektōr) meaning "beaming Sun".[8][9] According to myth, whenPhaëton son of Helios (the Sun) was killed, his mourning
sisters became poplar trees, and
their tears became elektron, amber.[10]
Amber is discussed by Theophrastus in the 4th century BC, and
again by Pytheas (c. 330 BC) whose work "On
the Ocean" is lost, but was referenced by Pliny the Elder, according to whose The Natural History (in
what is also the earliest known mention of the name Germania):[11]
Pytheas says that the Gutones, a people of Germany, inhabit the
shores of an estuary of the Ocean called Mentonomon, their territory extending
a distance of six thousand stadia; that, at one day's sail from this territory,
is the Isle of Abalus,
upon the shores of which, amber is thrown up by the waves in spring, it being
an excretion of the sea in a concrete form; as, also, that the inhabitants use
this amber by way of fuel, and sell it to their neighbors, the Teutones.
Earlier[12] Pliny
says that a large island of three days' sail from the Scythian coast called Balcia byXenophon
of Lampsacus, author of a fanciful travel book in Greek, is called
Basilia by Pytheas. It is generally understood to be the same as Abalus. Based
on the amber, the island could have beenHeligoland, Zealand, the shores of Bay of Gdansk, the Sambia Peninsula or the Curonian Lagoon, which were historically the
richest sources of amber in northern Europe. It is assumed that there were
well-established trade routes for amber connecting the Baltic with the Mediterranean
(known as the "Amber Road").
Pliny states explicitly that the Germans export amber to Pannonia, from where it was traded further
abroad by the Veneti. The
ancient Italic peoples of southern Italy were working amber, the most important
examples are on display at the National Archaeological Museum of Siritide
to Matera. Amber used in antiquity as at Mycenae and in the prehistory of the
Mediterranean comes from deposits of Sicily.
Pliny also cites the opinion of Nicias, according to whom amber "is a
liquid produced by the rays of the sun; and that these rays, at the moment of
the sun's setting, striking with the greatest force upon the surface of the
soil, leave upon it an unctuous sweat, which is carried off by the tides of the
Ocean, and thrown up upon the shores of Germany." Besides the fanciful
explanations according to which amber is "produced by the Sun", Pliny
cites opinions that are well aware of its origin in tree resin, citing the
native Latin name of succinum (sūcinum, from sucus "juice").[13] "Amber is produced from a marrow discharged by
trees belonging to the pine genus, like gum from the cherry, and resin from the
ordinary pine. It is a liquid at first, which issues forth in considerable
quantities, and is gradually hardened [...] Our forefathers, too, were of
opinion that it is the juice of a tree, and for this reason gave it the name of
'succinum' and one great proof that it is the produce of a tree of the pine
genus, is the fact that it emits a pine-like smell when rubbed, and that it burns,
when ignited, with the odour and appearance of torch-pine wood."
He also states that amber is also found in Egypt and in
India, and he even refers to the electrostatic properties of amber, by saying
that "in Syria the women make the whorls of their spindles of this
substance, and give it the name of harpax [from ἁρπάζω,
"to drag"] from the circumstance that it attracts leaves towards it,
chaff, and the light fringe of tissues."
Pliny says that the German name of amber was glæsum,
"for which reason the Romans, when Germanicus Cæsar commanded the fleet in
those parts, gave to one of these islands the name of Glæsaria, which by the
barbarians was known as Austeravia". This is confirmed by the
recorded Old High German glas and Old English glær for "amber"
(c.f. glass). In Middle Low German, amber was known as berne-,
barn-, börnstēn. The Low German term became dominant also in High Germanby the 18th century, thus modern
German Bernstein besides Dutch Dutch barnsteen.
The Baltic Lithuanian term
for amber is gintaras and Latvian dzintars. They, and
the Slavic jantar or
Hungarian gyanta ('resin'), are thought to originate
from Phoenician jainitar ("sea-resin").[citation needed]
Early in the nineteenth century, the first reports of
amber from North America came from discoveries in New Jersey along Crosswicks
Creek near Trenton, at Camden, and near Woodbury.[3]
The origins of Baltic amber are associated with the
Lithuanian legend about Juratė, the queen of the sea, who fell in love with
Kastytis, a fisherman. According to one of the versions, her jealous father
punished his daughter by destroying her amber palace and changing her into sea
foam. The pieces of the Juratė’s palace can still be found on the Baltic shore.
See also Jūratė and Kastytis.
Amber is heterogeneous in composition, but
consists of several resinous bodies more or
less soluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform, associated with an insoluble bituminous substance. Amber is a macromolecule by free radical
polymerization of several precursors in the labdane family, e.g. communic acid,
cummunol, and biformene.[14][15] These
labdanes are diterpenes (C20H32)
and trienes, equipping the organic skeleton with three alkene groups for polymerization. As amber matures over the
years, more polymerization takes place as well as isomerization reactions,crosslinking and cyclization.
Heated above 200 °C (392 °F), amber suffers
decomposition, yielding an oil of amber, and leaving a black
residue which is known as "amber colophony", or "amber
pitch"; when dissolved in oil ofturpentine or in linseed oil this forms "amber
varnish" or "amber lac".[14]
Molecular polymerization, resulting from high pressures
and temperatures produced by overlying sediment, transforms the resin first
into copal. Sustained heat and pressure drives
off terpenes and results in the formation of
amber.[16]
For this to happen, the resin must be resistant to decay.
Many trees produce resin, but in the majority of cases this deposit is broken
down by physical and biological processes. Exposure to sunlight, rain,
microorganisms (such as bacteria and fungi), and extreme temperatures tends to
disintegrate resin. For resin to survive long enough to become amber, it must
be resistant to such forces or be produced under conditions that exclude them.[17]
Fossil resins from Europe fall into two categories, the
famous Baltic ambers and another that resembles the Agathis group. Fossil resins from the
Americas and Africa are closely related to the modern genus Hymenaea,[18] while Baltic ambers are thought to be fossil resins
fromSciadopityaceae family plants that used
to live in north Europe.[19]
Baltic amber with inclusions
The abnormal development of resin in living trees (succinosis)
can result in the formation of amber.[20] Impurities are quite often present, especially when
the resin dropped onto the ground, so the material may be useless except for
varnish-making. Such impure amber is called firniss.
Such inclusion of
other substances can cause amber to have an unexpected color. Pyrites may give a bluish color. Bony
amber owes its cloudy opacity to numerous tiny bubbles inside the
resin.[21]However, so-called black amber is really
only a kind of jet.
In darkly clouded and even opaque amber, inclusions can
be imaged using high-energy, high-contrast, high-resolution X-rays.[22]
Amber mine "Primorskoje" in
Jantarny, Kaliningrad Oblast,Russia
Amber is globally distributed, mainly in rocks of
Cretaceous age or younger. Historically, theSamland coast west of Königsberg in Prussia was the world's leading source of
amber. About 90% of the world's extractable amber is still located in that
area, which became the Kaliningrad Oblast of
Russia in 1946.[23]
Pieces of amber torn from the seafloor are cast up by the
waves, and collected by hand, dredging, or diving. Elsewhere, amber is mined,
both in open works and underground galleries. Then nodules of blue
earth have to be removed and an opaque crust must be cleaned off,
which can be done in revolving barrels containing sand and water. Erosion
removes this crust from sea-worn amber.[21]
Blue amber from Dominican Republic
Caribbean amber,
especially Dominican blue amber, is mined through bell pitting, which is dangerous due to the
risk of tunnel collapse.[24]
The Vienna amber factories, which use pale amber to
manufacture pipes and other smoking tools, turn it on a lathe and polish it with whitening and
water or with rotten stone and
oil. The final luster is given by friction with flannel.[21]
When gradually heated in an oil-bath, amber becomes soft
and flexible. Two pieces of amber may be united by smearing the surfaces
with linseed oil, heating
them, and then pressing them together while hot. Cloudy amber may be clarified
in an oil-bath, as the oil fills the numerous pores to which the turbidity is
due. Small fragments, formerly thrown away or used only for varnish, are now
used on a large scale in the formation of "ambroid" or "pressed
amber".[21]
The pieces are carefully heated with exclusion of air and
then compressed into a uniform mass by intense hydraulic pressure, the softened
amber being forced through holes in a metal plate. The product is extensively
used for the production of cheap jewelry and articles for smoking. This pressed
amber yields brilliant interference colors in polarized light. Amber has often
been imitated by other resins like copal and kauri gum, as well as by celluloid and even glass.
Baltic amber is sometimes colored artificially, but also called "true
amber".[21]
Amber occurs in a range of different colors. As well as
the usual yellow-orange-brown that is associated with the color
"amber", amber itself can range from a whitish color through a pale
lemon yellow, to brown and almost black. Other uncommon colors include red
amber (sometimes known as "cherry amber"), green amber, and
even blue amber, which is rare and highly sought
after.
Yellow amber is a hard, translucent, yellow, orange, or
brown fossil resin from evergreen trees. Known to the Iranians by the Pahlavi
compound word kah-ruba (from kah “straw” plus rubay “attract, snatch,”
referring to its electrical properties), which entered Arabic as kahraba' or
kahraba (which later became the Arabic word for electricity, كهرباء kahrabā'), it too was called
amber in Europe (Old French and Middle English ambre). Found along the southern
shore of the Baltic Sea, yellow amber reached the Middle East and western
Europe via trade. Its coastal acquisition may have been one reason yellow amber
came to be designated by the same term as ambergris. Moreover, like ambergris,
the resin could be burned as an incense. The resin's most popular use was,
however, for ornamentation—easily cut and polished, it could be transformed
into beautiful jewelry. Much of the most highly prized amber is transparent, in
contrast to the very common cloudy amber and opaque amber. Opaque amber
contains numerous minute bubbles. This kind of amber is known as "bony
amber".[25]
Although all Dominican amber is fluorescent, the
rarest Dominican amber is blue amber. It turns blue in natural sunlight and any
other partially or wholly ultraviolet light source. In long-wave UV
light it has a very strong reflection, almost white. Only about 100 kg
(220 lb) is found per year, which makes it valuable and expensive.[26]
Sometimes amber retains the form of drops and stalactites, just as it exuded from the ducts
and receptacles of the injured trees.[21] It is thought that, in addition to exuding onto the
surface of the tree, amber resin also originally flowed into hollow cavities or
cracks within trees, thereby leading to the development of large lumps of amber
of irregular form.
Amber can be classified into several forms. Most
fundamentally, there are two types of plant resin with the potential for
fossilization.Terpenoids, produced by
conifers and angiosperms, consist of ring structures formed of isoprene (C5H8)
units.[2] Phenolic resins are today only produced
by angiosperms, and tend to serve functional
uses. The extinct medullosans produced
a third type of resin, which is often found as amber within their veins.[2] The composition of resins is highly variable; each
species produces a unique blend of chemicals which can be identified by the use
of pyrolysis–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry.[2] The overall chemical and structural composition is
used to divide ambers into five classes.[27][28] There is also a separate classification of amber
gemstones, according to the way of production.
This class is by far the most abundant. It comprises
labdatriene carboxylic acids such as communic or ozic acids.[27] It is further split into three sub-classes. Classes
Ia and Ib utilize regular labdanoid diterpenes (e.g. communic acid, communol,
biformenes), while Ic usesenantio labdanoids (ozic acid,
ozol, enantio biformenes).[29]
Includes Succinite (= 'normal' Baltic
amber) and Glessite.[28] Have a communic acid base. They also include much
succinic acid.[27]
Baltic amber yields
on dry distillation succinic acid, the proportion varying from about 3% to 8%,
and being greatest in the pale opaque orbony varieties. The
aromatic and irritating fumes emitted by burning amber are mainly due to this
acid. Baltic amber is distinguished by its yield of succinic acid, hence the
name succinite. Succinite has a hardness between 2 and 3, which is
rather greater than that of many other fossil resins. Its specific gravity
varies from 1.05 to 1.10.[14] It can be distinguished from other ambers via IR spectroscopy due to a specificcarbonyl absorption peak. IR spectroscopy
can detect the relative age of an amber sample.[verification needed] Succinic acid may not be an original component of
amber, but rather a degradation product of abietic acid.[30]
This class is mainly based on enantio-labdatrienonic
acids, such as ozic and zanzibaric acids.[27] Its most familiar representative is Dominican
amber.[2]
Dominican amber differentiates itself from Baltic amber by being mostly transparent
and often containing a higher number of fossilinclusions. This has enabled the
detailed reconstruction of the ecosystem of a long-vanished tropical forest.[31] Resin from the extinct species Hymenaea protera is the source of
Dominican amber and probably of most amber found in the tropics. It is not
"succinite" but "retinite".[32]
Class IV is something of a wastebasket; its ambers are
not polymerized, but mainly consist of cedrene-based sesquiterpenoids.[27]
Class V resins are considered to be produced by a pine or
pine relative. They comprise a mixture of diterpinoid resins and n-alkyl
compounds. Their type mineral is highgate copalite.[28]
Typical amber specimen with a number of
indistinct inclusions
The oldest amber recovered dates to the Upper Carboniferous period (320 million
years ago).[2][33] Its chemical composition makes it difficult to
match the amber to its producers – it is most similar to the resins produced
by flowering plants;
however, there are no flowering plant fossils until the Cretaceous, and they
were not common until the Upper Cretaceous. Amber becomes abundant long
after the Carboniferous, in the Early Cretaceous, 150 million
years ago,[2] when it is found in association withinsects. The
oldest amber with arthropod inclusions comes from the Levant, from Lebanon and
Jordan. This amber, roughly 125–135 million years old, is considered of high
scientific value, providing evidence of some of the oldest sampled ecosystems.[34]
In Lebanon more than 450 outcrops of Lower Cretaceous
amber were discovered by Dany Azar[35] a
Lebanese paleontologist and entomologist. Among these outcrops 20 have yielded
biological inclusions comprising the oldest representatives of several recent
families of terrestrial arthropods. Even older, Jurassic amber has been found recently in
Lebanon as well. Many remarkable insects and spiders were recently discovered
in the amber of Jordan including the oldest zorapterans, clerid beetles, umenocoleid roaches, and achiliid planthoppers.[34]
Baltic amber or succinite (historically documented as
Prussian amber[14]) is found as irregular nodulesin marine glauconitic sand, known as blue
earth, occurring in the Lower Oligocene strata of Sambia in Prussia (in historical sources also
referred to as Glaesaria).[14] After 1945 this territory around Königsberg was turned into Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia, where amber is now systematically
mined.[36]
It appears, however, to have been partly derived from
older Eocene deposits and it occurs also as a
derivative phase in later formations, such as glacial drift. Relics of an abundant flora
occur as inclusions trapped within the amber while the resin was yet fresh,
suggesting relations with the flora of Eastern Asia and
the southern part of North America. Heinrich Göppert named
the common amber-yielding pine of the Baltic forests Pinites succiniter,
but as the wood does not seem to differ from that of the existing genus it has
been also called Pinus succinifera. It is improbable, however, that
the production of amber was limited to a single species; and indeed a large
number of conifers belonging to different genera are represented in the
amber-flora.[21]
Amber is a unique preservational mode, preserving otherwise
unfossilizable parts of organisms; as such it is helpful in the reconstruction
of ecosystems as well as organisms;[37] the
chemical composition of the resin, however, is of limited utility in
reconstructing the phylogenetic affinity of the resin producer.[2]
Amber sometimes contains animals or plant matter that
became caught in the resin as it was secreted. Insects, spiders and even their
webs, annelids, frogs,[38] crustaceans, bacteria and amoebae,[39] marine microfossils,[40] wood, flowers and fruit, hair, feathers and other
small organisms have been recovered in ambers dating to 130 million
years ago.[2]
In August 2012, two mites preserved in amber were
determined to be the oldest animals ever to have been found in the substance;
the mites are 230 million years old
and were discovered in north-eastern Italy.[41]
Amber has been used since prehistory (Solutrean) in the
manufacture of jewelry and ornaments, and also in folk medicine. Amber also forms the flavoring
for akvavit liquor. Amber has been used as an
ingredient in perfumes.
Amber has been used since the stone age, from 13,000
years ago.[2] Amber ornaments have been found in Mycenaean tombs and elsewhere across
Europe.[42] To
this day it is used in the manufacture of smoking and glassblowing mouthpieces.[43][44] Amber's
place in culture and tradition lends it a tourism value; Palanga Amber Museum is
dedicated to the fossilized resin.
Amber jewelry from Dominican Republic
Amber has long been used in folk medicine for its purported healing
properties.[45] Amber and extracts were used from the time of Hippocrates in ancient Greece for a wide variety of treatments
through the Middle Ages and
up until the early twentieth century.[citation needed]
Lithuanian amber jewelry
In ancient China it was customary to burn
amber during large festivities. If amber is heated under the right
conditions, oil of amber is
produced, and in past times this was combined carefully withnitric acid to create "artificial
musk" – a resin with a peculiar musky odor.[46] Although when burned, amber does give off a
characteristic "pinewood" fragrance, modern products, such as perfume, do not normally use actual amber due
to the fact that fossilized amber produces very little scent. In perfumery,
scents referred to as “amber” are often created and patented[47][48] to
emulate the opulent golden warmth of the fossil.[49]
The modern name for amber is thought to come from
the Arabic word,
ambar, meaningambergris.[50][51] Ambergris
is the waxy aromatic substance created in the intestines of sperm whales and was used in making
perfumes both in ancient times as well as modern.
The scent of amber was originally derived from emulating
the scent of ambergris and/or labdanumbut due to the endangered species status
of the sperm whale the scent of amber is now largely derived from labdanum.[52] The term “amber” is loosely used to describe a
scent that is warm, musky, rich and honey-like, and also somewhat oriental and
earthy. It can be synthetically created or derived from natural resins. When
derived from natural resins it is most often created out of labdanum. Benzoin is usually part of the
recipe. Vanilla and cloves are
sometimes used to enhance the aroma.
"Amber" perfumes may be created using
combinations of labdanum, benzoin resin, copal (itself
a type of tree resin used in incense manufacture), vanilla, Dammara resin and/or synthetic materials.[46]
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Attribution
· This article incorporates text from a
publication now in the public domain: Rudler, Frederick
William (1911). "Amber (resin)". In Chisholm, Hugh.Encyclopædia
Britannica 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University
Press. pp. 792–794.