ارتکان . [ اَ ت َ ] (اِ) بلغت فارسی سنگ ریزه های سبکی است
زردرنگ و کوچک . محرق او لطیف و طلاء او باآب گشنیز و مانند او جهت اورام حاره و با
محللات جهت بردن گوشت زیاده و با قیروطی جهت رویانیدن گوشت و با مدرّات جهت ریزانیدن
حصاة نافع است و اجتناب از خوردن او اولی است . (تحفه ٔ حکیم مؤمن ). اُخرا*
. ارتکین . و رجوع بترجمه ٔ ابن بیطار (لکلرک )
ج 1 ص 49 شود.
* اخرا. [ اُ ] (یونانی ، اِ) (گِل ...) نام خاکی برنگ زرد و سرخ
وجز آن که در بعض سواحل و جزائر جنوبی ایران هست و از آن رنگ گیرند. و گِل ِ مختوم
قسمی از آن است . ارتکان . ارتکین . گلک (اصطلاح جزیره ٔ قشم و هرمز).
فاده .
//////////////
ارتکان
بکسر همزه و سکون رای مهمله و سکون تای مثناه فوقانیه و
فتح کاف و نون و آن را ارتکن نیز نامند لغت فارسی است بیونانی اخرا کویند
ماهیت آن
سنکریزه ها است سبک زردرنک و سرخرنک که چون بسوزانند سرخ
کردد و بهترین آن سبک زردرنک بی سنک ریزه و مستعمل محرق مغسول آن است زیرا که محرق
آن لطیفتر از غیر محرق آن است
طبیعت
آن
سرد و قابض
افعال و خواص و منافع آن
طلای آن با آب کشنیز و مانند آن مبرد اورام حاره و جراحات
و با محللات جهت بردن کوشت زائد فاسد و با قیروطی جهت رویانیدن کوشت صالح و پر
کردن زخمها و با مدرات جهت ریزانیدن حصاه نافع و اجتناب از خوردن آن اولی است
مخزن الادویه عقیلی خراسانی
///////////////
///////////
Ochre
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about a color and its
pigment. For other uses, see Ochre (disambiguation).
"Red ocher" redirects here. For
the indigenous people of North America, see Red Ocher people.
Ochre
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#CC7722
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(204, 119, 34)
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(0, 42, 83, 20)
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(30°, 83%, 80%)
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B: Normalized to
[0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred) |
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Ochre- pigment
Ochre (/ˈoʊkər/ oh-kər; from Greek: ὠχρός, ōkhrós, (pale
yellow, pale), also spelled ocher, see spelling differences) is a natural earth pigment containing hydrated iron oxide,
which ranges in color from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name
of the colors produced by this pigment, especially a light brownish-yellow.[1][2] A variant of ochre
containing a large amount of hematite, or dehydrated iron oxide, has a reddish
tint known as "red ochre".
Contents
Ochre
is a family of earth pigments, which includes yellow ochre, red ochre, purple
ochre, sienna, and umber. The major ingredient of all the ochres is iron(III)
oxide-hydroxide, known as limonite, which gives them a yellow color.
Yellow ochre (Goldochre)- pigment
·
Red ochre, Fe
2O
3, takes its reddish color from the mineral hematite, which is an anhydrous iron oxide.
2O
3, takes its reddish color from the mineral hematite, which is an anhydrous iron oxide.
·
Purple ochre, is identical to red
ochre chemically but of a different hue caused by different light diffraction
properties associated with a greater average particle size.
·
Sienna contains both limonite and a small
amount of manganese oxide (less
than five percent), which makes it darker than ochre.
·
Umber pigments
contain a larger proportion of manganese (five to twenty percent) which make
them a dark brown.[3]
When
natural sienna and umber pigments are heated, they are dehydrated and some of
the limonite is transformed into hematite, giving them more reddish colors,
called burnt sienna and burnt umber.
Ochres
are non-toxic, and can be used to make an oil
paint that dries quickly and covers surfaces thoroughly.
Modern
ochre pigments often are made using synthetic iron oxide. Pigments which use
natural ochre pigments indicate it with the name PY-43 (Pigment yellow 43) on
the label, following the Colour Index
International system.
·
Limonite, a mineraloid containing iron
hydroxide, is the main ingredient of all the ochre pigments.
·
Hematite is a more reddish variety of iron
oxide, and is the main ingredient of red ochre. When limonite is roasted, it
turns partially to the more reddish hematite and becomes red ochre or burnt
sienna.
·
Goethite, named for the German poet Goethe, is the main ingredient of brown ochre.
This sample comes from theLeadville District
inColorado.
·
The clay hills ofRoussillon, Vaucluse,
inProvence have been an important source of
ochre pigment since the 18th century.
·
Yellow and red ochre along the Path of
Ochres in Roussillon.
·
A keg of ochre pigment at the ochre mines
in Roussillon.
·
Red ochre underground mining. Province ofJaén,
Spain.
·
three different ochre- pigments
The use of ochre is particularly intensive:
it is not unusual to find a layer of the cave floor impregnated with a purplish
red to a depth of eight inches. The size of these ochre deposits raises a
problem not yet solved. The colouring is so intense that practically all the
loose ground seems to consist of ochre. One can imagine that the Aurignacians
regularly painted their bodies red, dyed their animal skins, coated their weapons,
and sprinkled the ground of their dwellings, and that a paste of ochre was used
for decorative purposes in every phase of their domestic life. We must assume
no less, if we are to account for the veritable mines of ochre on which some of
them lived...
— Leroi-Gourhan, A.
1968. The Art of Prehistoric Man in Western Europe. London: Thames
& Hudson, p. 40.
Iron
oxide is one of the most common minerals found on earth, and there is much
evidence that yellow and red ochre pigment was used in prehistoric and ancient
times by many different civilizations on different continents. Pieces of ochre
engraved with abstract designs have been found at the site of the Blombos Cave in South Africa, dated to
around 75,000 years ago.[4]
In
Wales, the paleolithic burial
called the Red Lady of Paviland from
its coating of red ochre has been dated to around 33,000 years before present.
Paintings of animals made with red and yellow ochre pigments have been found in
paleolithic sites at Pech Merle in
France (ca. 25,000 years old), and the cave of Altamira in Spain (ca.
15,000-16,500 BC). The cave of Lascaux has an image of a horse colored
with yellow ochre estimated to be 17,300 years old.
According
to some scholars, Neolithic burials used red ochre pigments symbolically,
either to represent a return to the earth or possibly as a form of ritual
rebirth, in which the color symbolizes blood and the Great Goddess.[5]
In Ancient Egypt, yellow was associated with
gold, which was considered to be eternal and indestructible. The skin and bones
of the gods were believed to be made of gold. The Egyptians used yellow ochre
extensively in tomb painting, though occasionally they used orpiment, which made a brilliant color but was
highly toxic, since it was made with arsenic. In tomb paintings, men were always
shown with brown faces, women with yellow ochre or gold faces.[6]
Red
ochre in Ancient Egypt was used as a rouge, or lip gloss for women.[7] Ochre-colored lines
were also discovered on the Unfinished Obelisk at
the northern region of the Aswan Stone
Quarry, marking work sites. Ochre clays were also used medicinally in Ancient Egypt: such use is
described in the Ebers Papyrus from
Egypt, dating to about 1550 BC.
Ochre
was the most commonly used pigment for painting walls in the ancient
Mediterranean world. In Ancient Greece, red ochre was called μίλτος,míltos (hence Miltiades, red-haired or ruddy). In Athens
when Assembly was
called, a contingent of public slaves would sweep the open space of theAgora with
ropes dipped in miltos: those citizens that loitered there instead
of moving to the Assembly area would risk having their
clothes stained with the paint. This prevented them from wearing these clothes
in public again, as failure to attend the Assembly incurred a fine. It was also
known as "raddle", "reddle" or "ruddle"[8] and was used to
mark sheep and can also be used as a waxy waterproof coating on structures. The
reddle was sold as a ready-made mixture to farmers and herders by travelling
workers called reddlemen.[9] A reddleman named
Diggory Venn was prominently described in Thomas Hardy's 1878 novel entitled The Return of the
Native.
In
classical antiquity, the finest red ochre came from a Greek colony on the Black Sea where the modern city of Sinop in Turkey is located. It was carefully
regulated, expensive and marked by a special seal, and this color was called
sealed Sinope. Later the Latin and Italian name sinopia was given to wide range of dark
red ochre pigments.[10] The Romans used
yellow ochre in their paintings to represent gold and skin tones, and as a
background color. It is found frequently in the murals of Pompeii.
The
Ancient Picts were said to paint themselves
"Iron Red" according to the Gothic historian Jordanes. Frequent references in Irish myth to
"red men" (Gaelic: Fer
Dearg) make it likely that such a practice was common to the Celts of
the British Isles, bog iron being particularly abundant in
themidlands of Ireland.
·
Image of a horse colored with yellow ochre(17,300 BC) fromLascaux cave, France.
·
Image of a human hand created with red
ochre inPech Merle cave, France (Gravettian era, 25,000 BC).
·
Image of a bison from the cave of Altamira in Spain, painted with
red ochre between 16,500 and 15,000 BC.
·
Paintings in the Tomb of Nakht in ancient Egypt(15th century BC).
·
Yellow ochre was often used in wall
paintings in Ancient Roman villas and towns.
During
the Renaissance, yellow and red ochre pigments were widely used in painting
panels and frescoes. The colors vary greatly from region to region, depending
upon whether the local clay was richer in yellowish limonite or reddish
hematite. The red earth from Pozzuoli near Naples was a salmon pink,
while the pigment from Tuscany contained
manganese, making it a darker reddish brown called terra di siena, or Siana
earth.[11]
The
15th century painter Cennino Cennini described the uses of
ochre pigments in his famous treatise on painting.
This
pigment is found in the earth of mountains, where particular seams like sulphur
are found. And there, where these seams are, sinopia, green earth and other
types of pigment are found...And the abovementioned pigments running through
this landscape looked as a scar on the face of a man or of a woman looks...I
went in behind with my little knife, prospecting at the scar of this pigment;
and in this way, I promise you, I never sampled a more lovely and perfect ochre
pigment...And know that this ochre is a common pigment, particularly when
working in fresco; that with other mixtures that, as i will explain to you, it
is used for flesh colours, for drapery, for coloured mountains and buildings
and hair and in general for many things.[12]
The
industrial process for making ochre pigment was developed by the French
scientist Jean-Étienne Astier in the 1780s. He was from Roussillon in
the Vaucluse department of Provence, and he was fascinated by the cliffs
of red and yellow clay in the region. He invented a process to make the pigment
on a large scale. First the clay was extracted from open pits or mines. The raw
clay contained about 80 to 90 percent sand and 10 to 20 percent ochre. Then he
washed the clay to separate the grains of sand from the particles of ochre. The
remaining mixture was then decanted in large basins, to further separate the
ochre from the sand. The water was then drained, and the ochre was dried, cut
into bricks, crushed, sifted, and then classified by color and quality. The
best quality was reserved for artists' pigments.[3]
In
Britain, ochre was mined at Brixham England. It became an important product for
the British fishing industry, where it was combined with oil and used to coat
sails to protect them from seawater, giving them a reddish color. The ochre was
boiled in great caldrons, together with tar, tallow andoak
bark, the last ingredient giving the name of barking yards to the
places where the hot mixture was painted on to the sails, which were then hung
up to dry.
As
noted above, the industrial process for making ochre pigment was developed by
the French scientist Jean-Étienne Astier in the 1780s, using the ochre
mines Roussillon in
the Vaucluse department of Provence, in France. Thanks to the process
invented by Astier and refined by his successors, ochre pigments from
Roussillon were exported across Europe and around the world. It was not only
used for artists paints and house paints; it also became an important
ingredient for the early rubber industry.
Ochre
from Roussillon was an important French export until the mid-20th century, when
major markets were lost due to the Russian Revolution and
the Spanish Civil War.
Ochre also began to face growing competition from newly synthetic pigment
industry. The mines in Roussillon closed, though the production of natural
ochre pigments continued at mines in Cyprus and other sites.
Multicolored ochre rocks used inAboriginal ceremony
and artwork.Ochre Pits, Namatjira
Drive, Northern Territory
Ochre
has been used for millennia by Aboriginal people in Australia and by natives in
New Zealand for body decoration, mortuary practices, cave painting, bark
painting and other artwork, and the preservation of animal skins, among other
uses. At Lake Mungo, in
Western New South Wales,
burial sites have been excavated and burial materials, including ochre-painted
bones, have been dated to the arrival of people in Australia[14] Ochre pigments are plentiful across
Australia, especially the Western Desert, Kimberley andArnhem Land regions, and occur in many
archaeological sites.[15] The National
Museum of Australia has a large collection of samples of ochre
from many sites across Australia.[16]
The Maori people of New Zealand were in the
early neolithic period of development when Europeans arrived, and were found to
be making extensive use of mineral ochre mixed with fish oil. Ochre was the
predominant coloring agent used by Maori, and was used to paint their
large waka taua (war
canoe). Ochre prevented the drying out of the wood in canoes and the carvings
of meeting houses; later missionaries estimated that it would last for 30
years. It was also roughly smeared over the face, especially by women, to keep
off insects. Solid chunks of ochre were ground on a flat but rough surfaced
rock to produce the powder.
In Newfoundland[17] its use is most often associated with
the Beothuk, whose use of red ochre led them to be
referred to as "Red Indians" by the first Europeans to Newfoundland.[18] It was also used by the Maritime Archaic as evidenced by its
discovery in the graves of over 100 individuals during an archaeological
excavation at Port
au Choix. Its use was widespread at times in the Eastern Woodlands cultural area of Canada
and the US; the Red Ocher people complex
refers to a specific archaeological period in the Woodlands ca. 1000-400 BC.
California Native
Americans such as the Tongva and Chumash were also known to use red ochre
as body paint.[19]
In Newfoundland,
red ochre was the pigment of choice for use in vernacular outbuildings
and work buildings associated with the cod fishery.
Deposits of ochre are found throughout Newfoundland, notably near Fortune
Harbour and at Ochre Pit Cove. While earliest settlers may have used locally
collected ochre, people were later able to purchase pre-ground ochre through
local merchants, largely imported from England.
The
dry ingredient, ochre, was mixed with some type of liquid raw material to
create a rough paint. The liquid material was usually seal oil or cod liver oil in Newfoundland and
Labrador, while Scandinavian recipes
sometimes called for linseed oil. Red
ochre paint was sometimes prepared months in advance and allowed to sit, and
the smell of ochre paint being prepared is still remembered by many today.
Variations
in local recipes, shades of ore, and type of oil used resulted in regional
variations in color. Because of this, it is difficult to pinpoint an exact
shade or hue of red that would be considered the traditional "fishing stage red". Oral tradition in the Bonavista Bay area maintains that seal
oil mixed with the ochre gave the sails a purer red color, while cod liver oil would give a
"foxy" color, browner in hue.
Himba woman covered with a traditional ochre pigment
Women
of the Himba ethnic
group in Namibia are famous for using a mix of
ochre and animal fat for body decoration, to achieve a reddish skin color. The
ochre mixture is also applied to their hair after braiding.[20]
·
Falu red
2.
Jump up^ The Random House College
Dictionary, Revised Edition, (1980). "Any of a class of natural
earths, mixtures of hydrated oxides of iron and various earthy materials,
ranging in color from pale yellow to orange and red, and used as pigments. A
color ranging from pale yellow to reddish-yellow."
3.
^ Jump up to:a b Roelofs,
Isabelle (2012). La couleur expliquée aux artistes. Groupe Eyrolles. ISBN 978-2-212-134865. p.
30
5.
Jump up^ Giulia Battiti Sorlini, "The
Megalithic Temples of Malta", Por Anthony Bonanno, Archaeology and
fertility cult in the ancient Mediterranean: papers presented at the First
International Conference on Archaeology of the Ancient Mediterranean,
University of Malta, 2–5 September 1985, p.145.
6.
Jump up^ http://www.webexhibits.org/pigments/intro/antiquity.html%7CWebexhibits -Pigments
through the ages - antiquity
8.
Jump up^ Mercer, Henry C.
(2000). Ancient carpenters' tools illustrated and explained, together with
the implements of the lumberman, joiner, and cabinet-maker in use in the
eighteenth century (Dover ed.). Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications.
p. 308. ISBN 0486320219.
9.
Jump up^ Morris, David (2013). Shepherds' Huts & Living Vans. Amberley
Publishing Limited. ISBN 144562141X.
Retrieved 24 November 2014.
12.
Jump up^ Lara Broecke, Cennino
Cennini's Il Libro dell'Arte: a New English Translation and
Commentary with Italian transcription, Archetype 2015, p. 71
13.
Jump up^ "Auberge D'Aragon" (PDF). National Inventory
of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands. 28 December 2012. Archived
from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016.
15.
Jump up^ "Aboriginal Art Online, Traditional painting
methods". Aboriginalartonline.com. Retrieved 2012-12-27.
18.
Jump up^ Ingeborg Marshall, The
Beothuk of Newfoundland: A Vanished People, Breakwater Books, 1989, p.5.
19.
Jump up^ The Megalithic Portal and Megalith
Map. "C. Michael Hogan, ''Los Osos Back Bay'', Megalithic
Portal, editor A. Burnham (2008)". Megalithic.co.uk.
Retrieved 2012-12-27.
20.
Jump up^ Crandall, David P. (2000). The
Place of Stunted Ironwood Trees. New York: Continuum International
Publishing Group Inc. p. 48
·
Helwig, K. Iron Oxide
Pigments, in Artists’ Pigments, Berrie, B.H., Ed., National Gallery of Art
Washington, 2007, pp 38 – 109
·
Isabelle Roelofs and
Fabien Petillion, La couleur expliquée aux artistes, Editions
Eyrolles, (2012), ISBN 978-2-212-13486-5.
·
Philip Ball, Histoire
vivante des couleurs (2001), Hazan Publishers, Paris, ISBN 978-2-754105-033
·
Fuller, Carl;
"Natural Colored Iron Oxide Pigments", pp. 281–6. In: Pigment
Handbook, 2nd Edition. Lewis, P. (ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1988.
·
Thomas, Anne Wall. Colors
From the Earth, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1980.
·
Wreschner, Ernst E.
(October 1980) "Red Ochre and Human Evolution: A Case for
Discussion." Current Anthropology 21:631–644.
(Comments by various authors included).
·
Daniel V. Thompson
(1956), The Materials and Techniques of Medieval Painting, Dover Publications,
New York. (ISBN 0-486-20327-1)
·
Lara Broecke, Cennino
Cennini's Il Libro dell'Arte: a New English Translation and
Commentary with Italian Transcription, Archetype, London, 2015 (ISBN 978-1-909492-28-8)
·
David Bomford and Ashoka
Roy (2009), A Closer Look- Colour, The National Gallery, London, (ISBN 978-1-85709-442-8)
 |
Wikisource has the text of the
1921 Collier's
Encyclopediaarticle Ochre.
|
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media
related to Ochre.
|
·
A recipe for red ochre paint.
·
Aboriginal Art Online Use of ochres in
traditional Aboriginal art.
·
National Museum of Australia Collection
of ochre samples.
·
Yellow
ochre, Colourlex
·
Red
ochre, Colourlex
&&&&&&&
ارجوان . [ اُ ج ُ ] (معرب ، اِ) (معرّب ارغوان ) (منتهی الارب
)(آنندراج ). و مما اخذوه [ ای العرب ] من الفارسیة البهرمان و هو لون احمر و کذلک
الارجوان و القرمز. (ابن درید در جمهرة از سیوطی در المزهر). سرخ . (منتهی الارب )
(مهذب الاسماء). صُبغ سرخ . آتش گون . (خلاص ). ارغوانی . سرخ روشن . || جامه های سُرخ
. (منتهی الارب ). || رنگی است سخت سرخ . || سرخی . || نشاسته . || درختی است که گل
سرخ دارد. (منتهی الارب ). ارغوان . (مهذب الاسماء) . معرّب از ارغوان فارسی است .
گرم مایل به اعتدال و مخرج اخلاط لزجه و جهت برودت معده و کلیه و تصفیه ٔ لون و طبیخ
او مقیی ٔ و منقی آلات تنفس و معده و سوخته ٔ او حابس نزف
الدّم و خضاب نیکو است و زنان از آن خطاط می سازند و ریشه ٔ بیخ او را چون
بقدر دو درهم بجوشانند مقیی ٔ قوی است و مصلحش برگ
عناب و نمام و بدلش صندل سرخ و نصف آن گلسرخ و دانه ٔ ارغوان در ادویه
ٔ عین قایم مقام
تشمیزج است . (تحفه ٔ حکیم مؤمن ). ارجوان
بهار درختی است که بپارسی آن را ارغوان گویند و آن بهار همچنان میخورند و طبیعت آن
سرد و خشک و تر است و پوست بیخ آن اگر بجوشانند و آب آن بیاشامند قی تمام آورد و این
مجربست و اگر چوب وی بسوزانند و بر ابرو مالند موی برویاند و سیاه و انبوه گرداند و
اگر از بهار وی شرابی سازند منع خمار کند و نافع بود. (اختیارات بدیعی ). و ضریر انطاکی
در تذکره گوید: ارجوان معرب ارغوان است . در عربی هراحمری را ارجوان گویند و در فارسی
نباتی است مخصوص ،چوب آن سست و برگ وی سبط و سخت سرخ و حرّیف ، غش آن با بقم کنند و
فرق در رزانت و کمودت است و نیز با طقشون (؟) و اختلاف در رخاوت باشد، در اول گرم و
معتدل است و مخرج اخلاط لزجه است و برودت معده و کلیه و کبدرا سود دارد و رنگ را صفا
دهد. و طبیخ وی آلات تنفس و معده را با قی ٔ پاک کند و محروق
آن نزف را حبس کندو خضابی نیکو است و غثیان آرد و مصلحش برگ عناب و نمّام و قدر شربتش
تا چهار است (؟) و بدل آن صندل سرخ مثل آن و گل سرخ به اندازه ٔ نصف وی باشد
- انتهی .
ابوریحان بیرونی در الجماهر آورده : قال ابن درید فی الارجوان
، انه فارسی معرب و هو اشدالحمرة و یقال له القرمز و انه اذا بولغ فی نعت حمرة الثوب
قیل ثوب ارجوانی و ثوب بهرمانی . اما التعریب فانه بالفارسیة گل ارغوان ، و تری هذه
الزهرة علی شجرة لاتنشق جدا و هی صغارمشبعة بالحمرة الضاربة الی الخمریة عدیمةالرائحة
نزهة فی المنظر و سواء ان کان عربیاً او معرباً فانه مستعمل بین العرب ، و قال عمروبن
کلثوم :
کأن ثیابنا منا و منهم
خضبن بأرجوان او طلینا.
و الارجوان لباس قیاصرةالروم و کان لبسه فیما مضی محظوراً
علی السوقة و ذکر انه دم حلزون عرفه اهل بلد صور من خطم کلب کان اکل هذاالحیوان فی
الساحل فتلون فوه بدمه و ذکر بان ینال الثنوی فی جملة ما کتب عنه بحضرةالساسانیة [
ظ: السامانیة ] ان لباس عظیم قتای الارجوان و هو له خاصة لایلبسه غیره و قال جالینوس
فی دودالقرمز انه ان اخذ من البحر و هو طری برد و هذا یوهم ماحکی عن اهل صور. (الجماهر
چ حیدرآباد ص 37 - 38). || بنفشه . (مهذب الاسماء). || آب ارجوان ؛ شراب . می .
////////////
ارجوان. بهار درختی است که بپارسی آن را ارغوان خوانند
بهار وی میخورند و طبیعت وی سرد و خشک است پوست بیخ آن را اگر بجوشانند و آب آن
بیاشامند قی تمام آورد و این مجرب است و اگر چوب وی بسوزند و بر ابرو مالند موی
برویاند و سیاه و انبوه گرداند و اگر از بهار وی شرابی سازند رفع خمار کند و نافع
است.
اختیارات بدیعی
//////////////
ارجوان
بضم همزه و سکون رای مهمله و ضم جیم و فتح
واو و الف و نون معرب از ارغوان فارسی است و آن را زعیدا کویند
ماهیت آن
درختی است که منبت آن بلاد فارس است کل آن
بسیار سرخ و مائل بنفشی و انبوه و نیکو منظر و بوی چندان ندارد و طعم آن اندک
شیرین و می خورند آن را و فارسیان آن کل را تنقل و مزۀ شراب می کنند و اعتقاد
ایشان آن است که تفریح می آورد و حلق و آواز را نیکو و صاف می کرداند و چوب آن رخو
و سبک و ثمری ندارد مکر تخمی که از ان مثل آن روید و حافظ نوع آن باشد
ص: 21
طبیعت آن
کرم مائل باعتدال است
افعال و خواص و منافع آن
مخرج اخلاط لزجه و رافع برودت معده و کلیه
و منقی آلات تنفس و مفتت حصاه و جهت تصفیۀ لون نافع و آشامیدن طبیخ کل آن مقئ و
منقی آلات تنفس و معده و آشامیدن طبیخ پوست ریشهای بیخ آن مقدار دو درم مقئ قوی
است و ذرور سوختۀ آن حابس نزف الدم و خضاب نیکو است و زنان از ان خطاط می سازند
بسبب سیاهی رنک آن و چون برابر و بمالند مژکان را برویاند مصلح قئ آن برک عناب و
نمام است بدل آن صندل و نیم وزن آن کل سرخ و تخم آن در ادویۀ عین قائم مقام تشمیزج
است که چشمیزج
نیز نامند و شراب زهر ارجوان و مربای آن
در قرابادین ذکر یافت.
مخزن الادویه عقیلی خراسانی
///////////////
اَرغَوان نام درختی است از سرده ارغوان.
بلندی آن گاهی به ۱۲ متر هم می‌رسد، اما بیشتر
به صورت درختچه‌است. ارغوان گیاه بومی سرزمین‌های جنوبی اروپا و جنوب غربی آسیاست و
در ایران در خراسان رضوی ،ایلام، شاهرود، کرمان، مازندران، گیلان، همدان، لرستان و
فارس به صورت خودرو میروید. این درخت را به عنوان گیاه زینتی می‌کارند. در شهرهای
شمالی استان خوزستان مانند دزفول، شوشتر، مسجدسلیمان و هفت تپه نیز این گیاه به وفور
یافت میشود اما زمان گلدهی آن اواسط زمستان است. ولایت پروان در کشور افغانستان نیز
برای رشد ارغوان بسیار مناسب است بگونه ای که در اردیبهشت ماه هر سال دشتهای این ولایت
به گلهای زیبای ارغوان آذین شده و نمای زیبایی را به منطقه می دهد. هرساله مراسمی ادبی
و فرهنگی به نام جشن ارغوان با حضور شاعران و نویسندگان و همینطور مقامات دولتی و محلی
در منطقه پروان برگزار می گردد و حتی دولت افغانستان در صدد انست که این جشن را در
میراث جهانی یونسکو به ثبت برساند.
برگهای ارغوان به شکل قلب، بدون کرک و دارای
کناره‌های صاف است. گلهای این درخت در اوایل بهار، در گروه های۳ تا۶ تایی، روی شاخه‌ها
و حتی روی ساقه اصلی، پیش از رشد برگ‌ها پدید می‌آیند و چون عده آنها بسیار زیاد است،
منظره زیبایی به درخت می‌دهد. مزه گل ارغوان ترش و نسبتاً مطبوع است. از این رو در
بعضی از کشورها گل ارغوان را همراه سالاد میخورند یا در بعضی از غذاها می‌ریزند.
امروزه مراکز حفاظت از منابع طبیعی آن را برای
حاشیه شهرها و روستاها توصیه نموده و حتی بعضی از مراکز دولتی نهال ارغوان را تولید
و به طور رایگان در اختیار علاقه‌مندان قرار می‌دهند.
این درخت در خاکهای گچی و آهکی راحت رشد می‌کند
و گرمای تند آفتاب و خشکی خاک را به آسانی تحمل می‌نماید. سرزمین مادری‌اش مناطق شرق
مدیترانه‌است و در کشور ما گسترش زیادی دارد.
اوایل «اردیبهشت»، ارغوان تماشایی‌ترین زمان
خود را می‌گذراند. در این هنگام در حالی که شاخه‌ها هنوز بدون برگ هستند، گلهای خوشهای
و صورتی‌رنگش به حالت آویخته ظاهر می‌شوند و سپس برگهای سبز و قلبی‌شکل، آن شاخه‌ها
را زینت می‌بخشد.
وقتی عمر گل‌ها به پایان رسید، بذرها در داخل
محفظه‌هایی به نام نیام قرار گرفته و تمام طول سال روی شاخه‌ها باقی می‌مانند.
نام[ویرایش]
در افسانه‌ها ارغوان درختی است که جبرائیل
در هیبت آن بر موسی نازل گردید.
نام علمی این گیاه cercis siliquastrum است و به یونانی به آن sixia می‌گویند. ریشهٔ واژهٔ فارسی ارغوان که هم‌ریشه‌هایش در بسیاری از
زبان‌های دیگر از جمله آرامی، عربی، عبری، و اوگاریتی هم وجود دارد، نهایتاً به واژهٔ باستانی اکدی argamannu می‌رسد (که از طریق اکدی گونهٔ آشوری جدید وارد این زبان‌ها شده است، که
در آن /m/ میان دو مصوت به /w/ تحول می‌یافته است: argawannu). که به معنی رنگ بنفش مایل به قرمز است. ارغوان
درختی است از خانواده پروانه آسا و از مشخصات بارز آن این است که این درخت در اول بهار
میروید و دارای گلهای نیام که از مشخصه این تیره‌است می‌باشد و گلهای آن زودتر از
برگهای آن در میاید و دارای شاخه‌های متقابل می‌باشد. این نام در ایران به عنوان نام
دختر نیز استفاده میشود.
شرایط مناسب برای کاشت ارغوان[ویرایش]
ارغوان، مناسبِ باغچه‌های بزرگ یا حاشیه کنار
پیاده‌روهاست. این درخت به نورِ فروانِ آفتاب احتیاج دارد. آن را در محل‌های کم‌نور
نباید کاشت. از سویی دیگر به سرما حساس است و مناسب مناطق سردسیر نیست. در عوض در مناطق
مرکزی کشور و در حاشیه کویر به آسانی میروید. راز سلامتی این گیاه در قابل نفوذبودنِ
خاک است، هر قدر خاک زهکش بهتری داشته باشد ارغوان سالم‌تر می‌ماند. اگر در کنار دیوار
غرس شود ممکن است ریشه‌های عمیقش به استحکام دیوارها آسیب برساند.
کاشت نهال
موقعی که درخت هنوز بدون گل و برگ و یا به
اصطلاح در خواب زمستانه به سر می‌برد زمان مناسبی برای انتقال به باغچه است. حجم گودال
باید مناسب با حجم ریشه باشد. قبل از انتقال نهال، هرس ریشه‌های پوسیده ضروری است.
//////////////
به کردی سورانی ئه رخه وان:
ئەرخەوان (ناوی زانستی: Cercis siliquastrum) دارێکە کە ناوەکەی لە ڕەنگی گوڵەکەیەوە وەرگیراوە. درەختێکە لە کۆمەڵەی پاقلەمەنییەکان (Fabaceae)
بۆ مەبەستی ڕازاندنەوە دەڕوێنرێت، درەختێکی لق و پۆپ بڵاوە نزیکەی ٦ – ١٠ مەتر بەرز دەبێتەوە. لە درەختەکانی جوانکارییە و دەڕوێنرێت لەبەر جوانی گوڵەکان و بەشی سەوزی، کە دەتوانێ لەسەر شەقام و ناو باخچەکان بڕوێنرێت، ھەروەھا درەختێکی گەڵا وەریوە، لق و گەڵاکان ساف و بێ موون، توێکڵی لقەکەی خۆڵەمێشییەکی تۆخە، لقە ناسکەکانی ڕەنگ ئەرخەوانی و بریسکە دارن، گەڵاکانی شێوەی گورچیلەییە Kidney - reniform،
گوڵەکەی لەسەر لقی ساڵی پێشوو دەبێت وە بەر لە گەڵاکەی دەردەکەوێت، ڕەنگەکەی مێخەکی مەیلەو سوورە، لە قەدپاڵی چیاکان و شیو و دۆڵەکاندا دەڕوێت لە بەرزایی ٩٠٠ مەتردا، لە نێوان مانگی مارت (٣) و مایس (٤) گوڵ دەکات وە لەنێوان مایس (٤) و تەمووز (٧) بەر دەگرێت وە ھەتا کۆتایی ساڵ بە درەختەکەوە دەمێنێتەوە کە تۆوەکانی لەناو بەرگێک دایە درێژیەکەی ٨ – ١٠ سم بە شێوەیەکی زۆر تایبەتمەند، تۆوەکەی خڕ و قوپاوە بەڕەنگێکی قاوەیی.
////////////
به عربی:
الزمزريق الأثيبي[2] (باللاتينية: Cercis siliquastrum) نوع نباتي شجري من جنس الزمزريق من الفصيلة
البقولية.
///////////
به عبری هَوُخِش:
כליל החורש (שם מדעי: Cercis siliquastrum) הוא עץ חורש נשיר
במשפחת הקסאלפיניים (הוא קרוב משפחה של החרוב). פריחתו הבוהקת בחודשי מרץ-אפריל העניקה
לו את שמו, אשר משמעותו היא "כתר החורש" או "נזר החורש".
העץ קטן מאוד; שיח עץ נשיר המגיע לגובה 6–8 מטר, בעל גזע מרכזי יחיד המתפצל בחלקו
התחתון, רוחב גזעו כ-30 ס"מ. העץ גדל בר בחבל הים תיכוני ההררי בגובה
100–1000 מ'. בעולם העץ גדל בדרום אירופה ודרום מערב אסיה; בספרד, דרום צרפת, איטליה,
יוון ואסיה הקטנה. כליל החורש הוא צמח מוגן בישראל.[1]
כליל החורש נמוך וצמרתו שופעת. בתחילת האביב מתכסה העץ בשפע פרחים בצבע ורוד לילך,
המופיעים לפני העלים. לפרחים טעם חומצי עדין, וניתן לאכלם בסלטים. העלים עגולים, תמימים
ומזכירים צורת לב. פירות העץ הם תרמילים פחוסים. פריחתו מעניקה לעץ מראה מלבב הן בחורש
והן כשהוא גדל כעץ נוי בגינות. הפרחים יוצאים מתוך הגזע ומתוך ענפים בוגרים דבר המעיד
על מוצאו הטרופי של העץ.
את זרעי העץ זורעים בחודש פברואר.
///////////
به ترکی ارغوان:
Erguvan (Cercis siliquastrum), baklagiller (Fabaceae)
familyasından, 10 metreye kadar boylanabilen, tek gövdeli, yaprak döken, çalı
görünümünde bir ağaççıktır.
Yapraklar karşılıklı,
basit, dairemsi 7–12 cm kadardır. Dip kısmı kalp şeklinde, ucu yuvarlak,
kenarlar tamdır. Gençken kırmızımsı-mor daha sonra mavi-yeşile döner. Yüzeyi
dalgalı düşmeden önce sarıdır. Çiçekler 1,5–2 cm uzunluğunda kırmızı-mor
3-6 tanesi bir arada bulunur. Meyve legümen (fasulyebiçiminde)
olup, 7–10 cm uzunluğundadır. Diğer bir önemli özelliği de toprağa azot bağlamasıdır.
Erguvan meyveleri
fasulye görünümünde, 9–10 cm. uzun, 2–5 cm. geniş, kızılsı kahve
renginde, karın çizgisinde dar ve uzunca kanat bulunur. Tohumu boldur.
Sonbaharda olgunlaşan meyve kış boyunca bitki üzerinde kalır. Nisan-Mayıs
ayında açan çiçekleri hermafrodit olup yapraklanmadan önce açarlar. Uzun saplı
olan çiçekler 3-8 çiçekli salkım kuruluşunda ve erguvan kırmızısı rengi ile çok
dekoratiftir.
Işık ağacıdır. Kışın
donlardan bazen etkilenir. Anavatanı Güney Avrupa ve
Batı Asya'dır. Türkiye'de Egeve Marmara Bölgesi'nde yayılış yapar. Tohum ve çelikle üretilir. Tohumlarda kabuk
sertliğinden kaynaklanan çimlenme engeli vardır. Tohumlar 2-3 dakika sıcak su
ve 24 saat ılık suda bırakıldıktan sonra ilkbaharda ekilir.
Çelikle üretim Temmuz-Ağustos aylarında alınan yarı odunsu çeliklerle yapılır.
Erguvan,
yapraklanmadan önce Nisan ayı sonuyla Mayıs ayı başında yalnızca birkaç
haftalığına baharın müjdecisi kabul edilen morumsu pembe renkte çiçekler açar.
Bazı Hıristiyan inanışlarına göreİsa'nın ihanet
eden havarisi Yahuda kendini
bu ağaca asmıştır. Efsaneye göre bu olaydan sonra önceleri beyaz olan erguvan
çiçekleri utançtan ya da kandan kırmızıya dönmüştür. Yazın sap kısmından
girintili yuvarlak yaprakları olur. Sonbaharda ise fasulye benzeri tohumlar
bırakır. Erguvan çiçeği havaların güzel gitmesi durumunda bazı sonbaharlarda da
açar.
////////////
Cercis siliquastrum
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Judas Tree
(disambiguation).
Judas Tree
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C. siliquastrum
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Siliquastrum orbicularis Moench
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Cercis
siliquastrum, commonly known as the Judas tree or Judas-tree,[1] is a small deciduous tree from Southern Europe and Western
Asia which is noted for its prolific display of deep pink flowers in spring.
Contents
Flowers sprouting from old growth.
Trunk and bark.
The
deep pink flowers are produced on year-old or older growth, including the trunk
in late spring (cauliflory). Also, the
flowers display a blossom with five free petals and fused sepals. This shape
is specific to theFabaceae. The leaves
appear shortly after the first flowers emerge. These are cordate with a blunt apex, which
occasionally has a shallow notch at the tip. The tree produces long flat pods
that hang vertically. The flowers are edible and purportedly have a sweet-acid
taste.[2]
A botanical illustration from 1891.
The
species was first described by Linnaeus in 1753 and he gave it the
specific epithet of siliquastrum which is derived from
the Latin word siliqua, meaning
"pod".[3] The generic
name comes from the Greek kerkis, a "shuttle", which refers to the resemblance
shown to this weaver's tool by the flat, woody seedpods.[4]
There
are several varieties and subspecies and these include:
·
var. hebecarpa Bornm.
·
nothosubsp. yaltikirii (Ponert)
Govaerts
·
var. siliquastrum
·
var. alba Weston
Flowers and pods
Cercis siliquastrum - MHNT
The cultivar 'Alba'
Psyllids (Cacopsylla pulchella) on
a Judas Tree leaf.
The
flowers are pollinated by bees, attracted by nectar. Pollen from the
protuding stamens is deposited on the bee's body
and carried to another flower's stigma.[5]
In
Israel the tree has a status of a protected plant.
The
species prefers deep, well-drained soils and a position in full sun or partial
shade.[2] This plant has
gained the Royal
Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[6]
Cultivars
include:
·
'Rubra' - dark
pink-purple flowers
The
tree is susceptible to leafhoppers, scale insects and psyllids (specifically Cacopsylla
pulchella) as well as diseases including canker, coral spot and verticillium wilt.
Propagation
is by seed, cuttings or budding.
The
species produces hard wood with an attractive grain. It is used in veneers and
polishes well.[2]
There
is a long-standing myth that Judas Iscariot hanged himself from a tree
of this species. This belief is related to the common name "Judas
tree", which is possibly a corrupted derivation from the French common
name, Arbre de Judée, meaning tree of Judea,
referring to the hilly regions of that country where the tree used to be
common.[8] Another possible
source for the vernacular name is the fact that the flowers and seedpods can
dangle direct from the trunk in a way reminiscent of Judas' suicide.[4]
A
sermon illustration on the deadly effects of succumbing to temptation refers to
an idea that the Judas Tree killed bees drawn to it: "Dr. Cuyler forcibly
illustrates this by reference to the Judas tree. The blossoms appear before the
leaves, and they are of a brilliant crimson. The flaming beauty of the flowers
attracts innumerable insects; and the wandering bee is drawn after it to gather
honey. But every bee which alights upon the blossom, imbibes a fatal opiate,
and drops dead from among the crimson flowers to the earth." [9]
·
Chapter 7 of V. by Thomas Pynchon
·
Fictionally used to
poison The Doctor in
the 2011 episode of Doctor Who, "Let's Kill Hitler"
·
In the fourth episode of
the fifth season of the HBO television
series True Blood, the
leader of the vampires, Roman, uses a stake made of Cercis siliquastrum to
stake another vampire.
1.
Jump up^ "BSBI
List 2007". Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland. Archived
from the original (xls) on 2015-02-25.
Retrieved 2014-10-17.
2.
^ Jump up to:a b c d "Cercis siliquastrum- L.". Plants
For A Future. Retrieved 13 September 2011.
3.
Jump up^ Rowell, Raymond J.
(1980). Ornamental Flowering Trees in Australia. Australia: AH & AW
Reed Pty Ltd Reed.ISBN 0-589-50178-X.
4.
^ Jump up to:a b Rumsey,
Fred. "Cercis siliquastrum (Judas
tree)". Natural History Museum. Retrieved 2013-01-04.
5.
Jump up^ Hickey, Michael; Clive King. 100 families of flowering plants. Cambridge
University Press. Retrieved13 September 2011.
7.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i Hatch,
Laurence (2007). Cultivars of Woody Plants Volume I (A-G).
Raleigh, North Carolina: TCR Press. Retrieved 13 September 2011.
8.
Jump up^ Mabberley, D.J. (2008). Mabberleys's
plant-book (3 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-521-82071-4.
9.
Jump up^ William Adamson, “Illustrations to
Chapter 3,” in Genesis, The Preacher’s Complete Homiletic Commentary (New York;
London; Toronto: Funk & Wagnalls Company, 1892), 72.
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Cercis
&&&&&&&&
اردق ناقی
بکسر همزه و سکون راء مهمله و فتح دال مهمله و سکون قاف و
فتح نون و الف و کسر قاف و یا لغت یونانی است
ماهیت آن
نباتی است شبیه بکبر بسیار تند رائحه و لاذع و در غایت
تندی و حرارت و اجتناب از ان اولی است مکر در اطلیه با مصلحات و صاحب اختیارات
کفته قثاء الحمار است بلغت اندلس و صاحب مغنی کفته که ثمر آن در غلاف می باشد.
مخزن الادویه عقیلی خراسانی
&&&&&&&
اُرز
بضم همزه و راء مهمله و زای معجمه معرب
اورزاء و اوریز یونانی است و بسریانی روزی و بعربی ثمن و بفارسی برنج و بتورانی
کرنج و بهندی چاول نامند
ماهیت آن
کیاه آن مانند جو و کندم و برکها و ساق آن
بلندتر و نرم تر و منبت آن یعنی محل زراعت آن زمینهای نمناک و چایهایی که در ان آب
باشد و یا آنکه آب بسیار بآن برسد مانند آب چشمه و رود خانه و باران و قنوات و
بلندی کیاه آن در اکثر بلاد تا به یک قامت و در بنکاله تا بدو قامت می رسد و درد و
فصل آن را زراعت می نمایند یکی پیش از موسم باران که برسات نامند و آن هنکام بودن
آفتاب در ثور تا اواخر جوزا است که با آب باران آنچه در زمینهای بلند است نشو و
نما یابد و آنچه بر زمینهای پست است مانند غدیرها که بهندی جهیل نامند و کنارهای دریا
و بطغیانی آبها و سیلابها هر مقدار که آب بلند می شود آن نیز بلند می شود و ما دام
که سر کیاه و خوشهای آن بیرون از آب است آن را خوفی و ضرری نیست هر مدت که باشد و
اکر احیانا دفعه آب طغیانی نماید و یا سیلاب عظیمی آید که تمام آن را بپوشد و غرق
نماید و بزودی از زیر آب برنیاید فاسد و پوسیده می کردد و بهترین برنجها و اماکنی
که در انها خوب می شود بلاد هند است خصوصا پشاور و کمون بندر سورت و بانس بریلی که
ما بین شاهجهان آباد و لکهنو است و عظیم آباد خصوص مکهه که دیهی است از دیههای آن
و بعد از هند سند و ایران است خصوص جمال بارز کرمان و از ان بهتر در مراغه زیرا که
برنج باریک سفید هندی و سندی سبک می باشد و بسیار لطیف و بی لزوجت خصوص انواع
مذکورۀ آنکه خوش بو و خوش ذائقه می باشد و اما برنج سرخ دانۀ درشت هندی و سندی
خالی از ثقلی و لزوجتی نیست و بدستور برنج ایران و اما برنج بلدان دیکر بسیار ثقیل
و لزج و خصوص آنچه در جزائر و سواحل دریای شور می شود و در اکثر این اماکن بسیار
کم و در بعضی جاها مطلقا نمی شود و وجه مدمت اطبای یونان و روم برنج را ازین جهت
است که در ان بلاد برنج وفور ندارد و خوب نمی شود و اکثر ثقیل و لزج و نفاخ و بطئ
الهضم می باشد و الا برنج اماکن مذکورۀ قبل و رای این اماکن لطیف و سریع الهضم تر
از حبوب دیکر است خصوص در امزجۀ حاره
ص: 21
در طبیعت آن
اختلاف کرده اند در حرارت و برودت آن بعضی
حارد و اول و بعضی بارد و بعضی معتدل دانسته اند و یابس در دوم و درین اتفاق دارند
و بعضی مرکب القوی دانسته و این اقوی و قریب بصواب است و اقوال اول نیز درست است
زیرا که چون در آب بجوشانند و آب آن را بکیرند و آن برنج را دم دهند که بفارسی
چلاوکش نامند می باشد جرم آن برنج سرد در اول و آن آب کرم در اول و اما چون آب آن
را نکیرند و دم دهند که آب بر نامند و اکثر پلاو را بدین نحو طبخ می دهند می باشد
مائل بکرمی و لیکن باید که قبل از طبخ زمانی آن را به آب بخیسانند و خوب مالیده
بچند آب شسته طبخ نمایند و اما برنجهای لزج را چون چند مرتبه جوش ندهند و آب غلیظ
لزج آن را نریزند استعمال آن جائز نیست و بالخاصیه در محرور المزاج احداث حرارت و
در مبرود المزاج برودت می کند و ازین جهت شاید قدما و اکثر متأخرین مرضی را مزوره
از برنج نفرموده اند و مخصوص باصحا داشته اند که در مرضی احداث کیفیت متضاده و در
اصحا کیفیت متوافقه شرط است و یحتمل که این مخصوص بارز غیر هندی و جید باشد زیرا
که بعضی مرضی
١١را برنج هندی موافق تر است از حبوب دیکر و
بعضی را نان کندم و در خواص آن و آنکه باعث صحت و مزید عمر است حدیث وارد است و
اطبای هند نیز متفق اند در آنکه باعث نوم صالح می کردد و تفصیل آن در قرابادین ذکر
یافت
ص: 21
افعال و خواص و منافع آن
مولد خلط صالح و حوابهای نیکو و رافع
تشنکی و مسکن لذع اختلاط مراری و اسهال صفراوی و مسمن بدن و مولد منی و زحیر و سحج
و قروح امعا و اسهال دموی و اختناق رحم و امراض کرده و مثانه را نافع و مصلح حال
بدن و نیکو کنندۀ رنک رخسار و خوردن آن با شیر و شکر کثیر الغذا و مبهی و مسمن بدن
و مولد منی و با دوغ تازه و سماق مسکن حرارت و تشنکی و غثیان و حبس اسهال صفراوی و
با شیر بز جهت زحیر و با پیه کردۀ بز و روغن بادام شیرین یا فندق جهت مفص و سحج و
اکثار آن مصلح حال بدن و نیکوئی رنک رخسار و مولد خلط صالح و باعث دیدن خوابهای
خوب نیکو است از برای اصحاب سل خصوص که با شیر الاغ پخته باشند هنکامی که حمی عفنی
نباشد جهت آنکه پاک می کرداند قرحه را و کوشت صالح می رویاند و همچنین با پایچۀ
بزغاله پختۀ آن و عصیدۀ آن بول الدم را نافع اما بعد نقای قاروره از خون و قبل از
نقای اغذیۀ قابضۀ حامضه مانند سماقیه و آب شیرین کردۀ آن به ترنجبین و حقنه با آب
مغسول آن جهت سحج و قرحۀ امعا نافع و آشامیدن آرد پختۀ آن با پیه کردۀ بز که نیکو
طبخ یافته باشد جهت افراط اسهال مرضی خصوص که بریان کرده باشند آن را و جهت اسهال
دوالی و سحج و قروح امعا بغایت نافع و کویند چون برنج را بریان کنند که سرخ تیره
شود و سیاه نکردد و نسوزد و مقدار ده پانزده مثقال آن را در چهل پنجاه مثقال آب
همان قسم درست شب بخیسانند و صبح آب صاف آن را بیاشامند جهت رفع کرم معده و غثیان
که از رطوبت و حرارت باشد نافع و آشامیدن آب نقوع سوختۀ آن مسکن عطش مفرط حادث از
هیضه و غیرها و چون برنج سفید را در آب بخیسانند و آب صاف آن را بیاشامند جهت حبس
اسهال و هیضه مفید و سائیدۀ آن با کپاهی که بهندی پونده و دوب نامند که بر زمین
مفروش و برکهای آن باریک و در شاخهای آن کره ها می باشد و بفارسی مرغ نامند و با
اندک نبات سفید و قدری آب خالص شیره کرفته بیاشامند نفث الدم را مفید است و
آشامیدن آب مطبوخ آن مانند ماء الشعیر که بهندی پیچ نامند مسکن لذع اخلاط مراری
معده و امعا و با شیر تازه بالمناصفه ده روز خوردن جهت تولید منی مجرب و سعوط کرد
برنج که در حین کوبیدن بهم می رسد قاطع رعاف است و اغتسال بدان جهت جلای اوساخ از
بدن و طلای آن با ترمس جهت رفع کلف و آثار جلد مفید و همچنین با آب خربزه و ضماد
آن با پیه کرنۀ بز جهت کشودن دمل و ذرور آن جهت خراجات تازه و چون جواهر را خصوص
مروارید با آب مطبوخ برنج و یا آب نخالۀ غیر مطبوخ آن بشویند چرک آن را زائل سازد
و جلا دهد و همچنین چون آرد بسیار نرم آن را به آب بمالند و خشک نموده به آب
بشویند و همچنین چند مرتبه تکرار نمایند بسیار صاف و جلا یابد المضار آشامیدن آب
مطبوخ شلتوک که بفارسی شالی و بهندی دهان نامند و پوست شلتوک که بسیار نرم سلایه
کرده باشند از سموم است و کویند که یک مثقال آن کشنده است و برنج مولد قولنج و سده
و مولف تذکره مکرب و مصدع می داند مصلح آن خیسانیدن آن است در آب نخالۀ کندم و
خوردن آن با شیرینی و چون در آب قرطم بجوشانند رفع سدۀ آن می کند بدل آن آرد جو
مغسول است و برنج بریان و حلویات و اطعمۀ مصنوع از ان در قرابادین ذکر یافت
ص: 217
مخزن الادویه عقیلی خراسانی
////////////////
Oryza sativa
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Oryza sativa
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O. sativa
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Oryza sativa, inflorescence
Oryza
sativa, commonly known as Asian rice,
is the plant species most commonly referred to in
English asrice. Oryza sativa is a grass with
a genome consisting of 430Mb across 12 chromosomes. It is renowned for being easy
to genetically modify,
and is a model organism
for cereal biology.
Contents
Oryza
sativa contains
two major subspecies: the sticky, short-grained japonica or sinica variety,
and the nonsticky, long-grained indica variety. Japonica varieties
are usually cultivated in dry fields, in temperate East Asia, upland areas of
Southeast Asia, and high elevations in South Asia, while indica varieties
are mainly lowland rices, grown mostly submerged, throughout tropical Asia.
Rice occurs in a variety of colors, including:white, brown, black, purple, and red rices.[1] Black rice (also
known as purple rice) is a range of rice types, some of which are glutinous
rice. Varieties include Indonesian black rice and Thai jasmine black rice.
A
third subspecies, which is broad-grained and thrives under tropical conditions,
was identified based on morphology and initially called javanica,
but is now known as tropical japonica. Examples of this variety
include the medium-grain 'Tinawon' and 'Unoy' cultivars, which are grown in the
high-elevation rice terraces of the Cordillera
Mountains of northern Luzon,
Philippines.[2]
Glaszmann
(1987) used isozymes to sort O. sativa into
six groups: japonica, aromatic, indica, aus, rayada,
and ashina.[3]
Garris et
al. (2004) used simple sequence repeats to sort O.
sativa into five groups: temperate japonica,tropical
japonica and aromatic comprise the japonica varieties,
while indica and aus comprise the indicavarieties.[4]
Rice
has been cultivated since ancient times and oryza is a
classical Latin word for rice. Sativa means
"cultivated".
O. sativa
Rice stem cross section magnified 400 times
A: Rice with chaff
B: Brown rice
C: Rice with germ
D: White rice with bran residue
E: Musenmai (Japanese:無洗米), "Polished and ready to boil rice", literally, non-wash rice
(1): Chaff
(2):Bran
(3): Bran residue
(4): Cereal germ
(5): Endosperm
![[icon]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small} |
.jpg)
Rice grains collection of IRRI
Further information: List of rice
varieties
|
Debates
on the origins of the domesticated rice are numerous. In 2011, genetic evidence
shows that all forms of Asian rice, both indica and japonica,
spring from a single domestication that occurred 8,200–13,500 years ago in
China of the wild rice Oryza rufipogon.[5] A 2012 study ,
through a map of rice genome variation, indicated that the domestication of
rice occurred in the Pearl River valley
region of China. From East Asia, rice was spread to South and Southeast Asia.[6] Before this
research, the commonly accepted view, based on archaeological evidence, is that
rice was first domesticated in the region of the Yangtze River valley in China.[7][8][9]
The
precise date of the first domestication is unknown, but depending on the
molecular clock estimate, the date is estimated to be 8,200 to 13,500 years
ago. This is consistent with known archaeological data on the subject.[10]
An
older theory, based on one chloroplast and two nuclear gene regions, Londo et
al. (2006) had proposed that O. sativa rice was
domesticated at least twice—indica in eastern India, Myanmar, and Thailand; andjaponica in southern China and Vietnam—though they concede that
archaeological and genetic evidence exist for a single domestication of rice in
the lowlands of China.[11]
Because
the functional allele for
nonshattering, the critical indicator of domestication in grains, as well as
five other single-nucleotide
polymorphisms, is identical in both indica and japonica,
Vaughan et al. (2008) determined a single domestication event
for O. sativa happened in the region of the Yangtze River
valley.[12]
Rice
appears to have been used by the early Neolithic populations of Lijiacun and
Yunchanyan.[13] Evidence of
possible rice cultivation in China around
11,500 BP has been
found, but whether the rice was indeed being cultivated, or instead was
being gathered as
wild rice is still questioned.[14]
Zhao
(1998) argues that collection of wild rice in the Late Pleistocene had, by 6400 BC, led to
the use of primarily domesticated rice.[15] Morphological
studies of rice phytoliths from the
Diaotonghuan archaeological site clearly show the transition from the
collection of wild rice to the cultivation of domesticated rice. The large
number of wild rice phytoliths at the Diaotonghuan level dating from
12,000–11,000 BP indicates that wild rice collection was part of the local
means of subsistence. Changes in the morphology of Diaotonghuan phytoliths
dating from 10,000–8,000 BP show that rice had by this time been domesticated.[16] Analysis of Chinese
rice residues from Pengtoushan, which
were carbon 14 dated to 8200–7800 BCE, show
that rice had been domesticated by this time.[17]
In
1998, Crawford and Shen reported the earliest of 14 AMS or radiocarbon dates on
rice from at least 9 Early to Middle Neolithic sites are no older than 7000 BC,
that rice from the Hemudu and Luojiajiao
sites indicates that rice domestication likely began before 5000 BC, but that
most sites in China from which rice remains have been recovered are younger
than 5000 BC.[13]
Paddy fields in the Indian state ofTamil Nadu
Wild Oryza rice
appeared in the Belan and Ganges valley regions
of northern India as
early as 4530 BC and 5440 BC, respectively,[18] although many
believe it may have appeared earlier. The Encyclopædia Britannica—on
the subject of the first certain cultivated rice—holds that:[19]
Many
cultures have evidence of early rice cultivation, including China, India, and
the civilizations of Southeast Asia. However, the earliest archaeological
evidence comes from central and eastern China and dates to 7000–5000 BC.
Denis
J. Murphy (2007) further details the spread of cultivated rice from India
into Southeast Asia:[20]
Several wild cereals, including rice, grew
in the Vindhyan Hills, and rice cultivation, at sites
such as Chopani-Mando and Mahagara, may have been underway as early as 7000 BP.
The relative isolation of this area and the early development of rice farming
imply that it was developed indigenously.
Chopani-Mando and Mahagara are located on
the upper reaches of the Ganges drainage system,
and it is likely that migrants from this area spread rice farming down the
Ganges valley into the fertile plains of Bengal, and beyond into south-east Asia.
Rice
was cultivated in the Indus Valley
civilization.[21] Agricultural
activity during the second millennium BC included rice cultivation in the Kashmir and Harrappan regions.[18] Mixed farming was
the basis of Indus valley economy.[21]
According
to Zohary and Hopf (2000, p. 91), O. sativa was recovered
from a grave at Susa in Iran (dated to the first century
AD) at one end of the ancient world, while at the same time rice was grown in
the Po valley in Italy. In northern Iran,
in Gilan province,
many indica rice
cultivars including 'Gerdeh', 'Hashemi', 'Hasani', and 'Gharib' have been bred
by farmers.[22]
Mainstream
archaeological evidence derived from palaeoethnobotanical investigations
indicate dry-land rice was introduced to Korea and Japan sometime
between 3500 and 1200 BC. The cultivation of rice then occurred on a small
scale, fields were impermanent plots, and evidence shows that in some cases
domesticated and wild grains were planted together. The technological,
subsistence, and social impact of rice and grain cultivation is not evident in
archaeological data until after 1500 BC. For example, intensive wet-paddy rice agriculture was introduced
into Korea shortly before or during the Middle Mumun pottery period(circa 850–550
BC) and reached Japan by the final Jōmon or initial Yayoi periods circa 300 BC.[13][23]
In
2003, Korean archaeologists alleged they discovered burnt grains of
domesticated rice in Soro-ri, Korea, which dated to 13,000 BC. These
antedate the oldest grains in China, which were dated to 10,000 BC, and
potentially challenge the mainstream explanation that domesticated rice
originated in China.[24] The findings were
received by academia with strong skepticism, and the results and their
publicizing has been cited as being driven by a combination of nationalist and
regional interests.[25]
Using water buffalo to plough rice fields in Java;
Indonesia is the world's third-largest paddy rice producer, and its cultivation
has transformed much of the country's landscape.
Traditional medicinal rice ofNiyamgiri Hills, India
Medicinal rice of Chhattisgarh used as immune booster
Rice
is the staple for all classes in contemporary Southeast Asia, from Myanmar to Indonesia. In Indonesia, evidence of
wild Oryza rice on the island of Sulawesi dates from 3000 BCE. The
evidence for the earliest cultivation, however, comes from eighth-century stone
inscriptions from Java, which show kings levied taxes in rice.
Divisions of labor between men, women, and animals that are still in place in
Indonesian rice cultivation, can be seen carved into the ninth-century Prambanan temples in Central Java. In the 16th century, Europeans
visiting the Indonesian islands saw rice as a new prestige food served to the
aristocracy during ceremonies and feasts. Rice production in Indonesian history
is linked to the development of iron tools and the domestication of water buffalo for cultivation of fields
and manure for fertilizer. Once covered in
dense forest, much of the Indonesian landscape has been gradually cleared for
permanent fields and settlements as rice cultivation developed over the last
1500 years.[26]
In
the Philippines, the greatest evidence of rice
cultivation since ancient times can be found in the Cordillera
Mountain Range of Luzon in
the provinces of Apayao, Benguet, Mountain Province and Ifugao. The Banaue Rice Terraces (Tagalog: Hagdan-hagdang Palayan ng
Banaue) are 2,000- to 3,000-year-old terraces that were carved into the
mountains by ancestors of the Batad indigenous people. The terraces are
commonly thought to have been built with minimal equipment, largely by hand.
The terraces are located about 1,500 m (5,000 ft) above sea level and
cover 10,360 km2 (about
4,000 mi2) of mountainside. They
are fed by an ancient irrigation system from the rainforests above the terraces.
Evidence
of wet-rice cultivation as early as 2200 BC has been discovered at both Ban Chiang and Ban Prasat in Thailand.
By
the 19th century, encroaching European expansionism in the area increased rice
production in much of Southeast Asia, and Thailand, then known as Siam. British Burma became the world's largest
exporter of rice, from the turn of the 20th century to the 1970s, when
neighbouring Thailand exceeded
Burma. In recent years, Vietnam has been a strong exporter, as well,
occasionally eclipsing Thailand. While China, India, and Indonesia remain the
top rice producers, they are also some of the top rice consumers.
2.
Jump up^ CECAP, PhilRice and IIRR. 2000.
"Highland Rice Production in the Philippine Cordillera."
3.
Jump up^ Glaszmann, J. C. (2004).
"Isozymes and classification of Asian rice
varieties". Theoretical and Applied Genetics.
4.
Jump up^ Garris; Tai, TH; Coburn, J;
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(2008). "The evolving story of rice evolution". Plant
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Chiang TY, Schaal BA (June 2006)."Phylogeography
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(2013). "Phenotypic evaluation of scutellum-derived calluses
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Oryza
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Rice
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ارز. [ اَ / اُ ] (ع اِ) صنوبر. (قاموس ) (برهان ) (مؤید الفضلاء). ارز،
درخت صنوبر بی بار است و زفت رطب از آن حاصل میشود. (تحفه ٔ حکیم مؤمن ). || یا صنوبر
نر. (منتهی الأرب ). صنوبر نر که ثمر ندهد. شربین . فوقا . || صنوبر صغار. رجوع به
صنوبر صغیر شود. || یا درخت عرعر . (منتهی الأرب ) (برهان ). || درخت سرو. (برهان
) (مؤید الفضلاء). || درخت انار. (برهان ) (مؤید الفضلاء).
///////////
اُرز- اُرزت. درخت صنوبر نر است که برنمیدهد و از وی زفت
سازند و در زمین عرب بسیار بود طبیعت آن گرم و خشک است
اختیارات بدیعی
/////////////
اُرز
بضم اول و سکون راء مهمله و زای معجمه
ماهیت آن
درخت صنوبر بی بار است و زفت رطب از ان
حاصل می شود منبت آن زمین عرب
طبیعت آن
کرم و خشک است
مخزن الادویه عقیلی خراسانی
////////////////
الصنوبر جنس من الأشجار من الفصيلة
الصنوبرية.
من أهم أنواع الاخشاب حيث أنه مهم
للعديد من الصناعات كالأثاث والآلات الموسيقية وغيرها وتتميز الادوات المطبخية المصنوعة
من الصنوبر بمقاومتها الشديدة للجراثيم ولا غنى عن ذكر أهمية الصنوبر في العطورات عند
استخلاص زيته.
محتويات [أظهر]
التوزيع الجغرافي[عدل]
ينتشر الصنوبر في المناطق الباردة
والمعتدلة. في الوطن العربي توجد أنواع من الصنوبر وهو موجود في جبال بلاد الشام، فهو
يتواجد في مناطق جبل لبنان (المتن وكسروان والشوف وعاليه) وفي سوريا في جبال اللاذقية
وجبل حلب وفي مناطق الغابات السورية ويوجد في شمال ووسط فلسطين والأردن. وفي المغرب
العربي يتواجد في الغابات شمال غرب تونس وفي جبال الجزائر والريف المغربي، ويوجد في
المناطق المجاورة لمدينة البيضاء والجبل الأخضر في ليبيا.
حرش صنوبر ثمري في رأس المتن
الشكل الخارجي[عدل]
Crystal xedit.png هذا القسم فارغ أو غير مكتمل، تفضل بتعديله.
الوصف النباتي[عدل]
الصنوبر الثمري شجرة يبلغ ارتفاعها
/ 30/ م تعيش حتى / 150/ سنة وأحيانا حتى /250/ سنة التاج شكله كروي عند الأشجار الفتية
ثم يصبح منبسطا على شكل مظلة عند الأشجار الناضجة، القشرة مشققة حرشفية، البراعم اسطوانية
تجتمع كل ورقتان في غمد واحد الأزهار صفراء مرصعة بالبني أحادية المسكن، المخاريط الثمرية
كبيرة الحجم يصل طولها من / 8- 15 / سم تنضج المخاريط خلال ثلاث سنوات ويتم جمعها في
نهاية الصيف وخلال الخريف. شجرة الصنوبر شكل منتصب يصل ارتفاعها15- 40 مترا، لها جذع
مفرد شديد النحافه وكثير التفرع وقد يصبح قويا وملتويا، وتمتد اغصانة يشكل افقي تقريبا،
اما اوراقها فانها تكون في البداية شكل هرم تام تقريباً ثم يصبح فيما بعد مستديرا ومسطحاً،
ويظهر لون الاوراق في مجموعها لون مدهام ضارب إلى السواد، ويكون شكل الاوراق ابرية
ويتراوح طولها من8-15 سم وهي قاسية غير ملتوية ولا مكتفه.. وهي شجرة احادية المسكن،
تزهر وتتفتح بفصل الربيع.. اما لونها فهو أخضر قاتم، وتجتمع كل ورقتين اثنتين منها
بالفرع الرئيسي ويكون ترتيبها على الأغصان غير منتظم فبعضها تكون عمودية واحيانا مائلة
وأخرى تكون بزاوية حاده نحو الخارج أو نحو أسفل الغصن تبعا لأعمارها.. ومخاريط الصنوبر
مميزة إذ تتجمع مثنى مثنى أو رباع رباع، ويبلغ طول كل مخروط بين 4-8 سم وتترتب بشكل
متناظر على جانبي الغصن الذي تتعامد معه. وتكون المخاريط اما بيضوية أو مخروطيه الشكل
مؤنقة ذات لون اسمر خفيف أو اسمر مصفر. وتنضج هذه المخاريط في خريف العام الثاني بعد
الالقاح ولا تسقط مخاريط الصنوبر هذة على الأرض الا في هذا الوقت تكون الحراشف قد تفتحت
أيضا..²الصنوبر المثمر:- يكثر زراعة هذا النوع في مختلف الهضاب وتهام
البحر المتوسط من فلسطين ولبنان إلي إيطاليا والأندلس. ويكون جذعها قائما يصل من20-35
مترا، وقشورها متراصة الطبقات وأغصانها غليظة فارشه تتميز قمتها بشكلها المظلي وبراعمها
اسطوانية، حراشفها ناشزة، أوراقها ابريه تجتمع كل ورقتين في غمد واحد وقلما تجتمع ثلاثة،
ويتراوح طول هذه الاوراق من6-10سم.. وتكون ثمارها بيضوية الشكل مقطوعه القاعدة تكسوها
الحراشف السميكة وبذورها كبيرة مستطيلة ومغطاة بجدار سميك يصعب كسرة كما تستعمل في
طعام الإنسان وصنع الحلويات.. الصنوبر كي تصل إلى مرحلة الإنتاج الأولى إلى ما بين
17 و25 سنة، ثم يتزايد إنتاجها بحسب موقعها ونوعية التربة ونموها مع الزمن. ويستخدم
الصنوبر في إعداد أصناف من أطباق المقبلات والحلوى في لبنان والعديد من الدول الأخرى.
تبدأ عملية القطاف في كانون الأول، حين يصعد العمال إلى أشجار الصنوبر ويسقطون الأكواز
عبر عصي طويلة، وهي عملية خطرة، إذ قد يصل ارتفاع الأشجار إلى ما يزيد على عشرة أمتار.
بعد جمع أكواز الصنوبر تترك عادةً على أسطح المنازل وتتعرض لأشعة الشمس والهواء لتجف
ثم تستخرج منها حبات الصنوبر عبر آلات تسمى «كسارة الصنوبر».
المعلومات الغذائية[عدل]
يحتوي كل كوب من الصنوبر (135غ)
بحسب وزارة الزراعة الأميركية على المعلومات الغذائية التالية:
السعرات الحرارية: 909
الدهون: 92.30
الدهون المشبعة: 6.61
الكاربوهيدرات: 17.66
الألياف: 5
البروتينات: 18.48
الكولسترول: 0
التصنيف[عدل]
Crystal Clear app kdict.png مقالة مفصلة: تصنيف الصنوبر
هناك عشرات الأنواع من الصنوبر نذكر
منها في الوطن العربي:
الصنوبر الحلبي: يتألف من خشب طري
أبيض مصفر ومن خشب قلب بني محمر، ويحتوي خشب الصنوبر على أقنية راتنجية تفرز مادة الراتنج
في جذع الشجرة ويقدر الإنتاج الوسطي للشجرة حوالي 3 كغ في السنة، إن الجذوع المتعرجة
تعطي أخشاباً لاستعمالات النجارة العادية والصناديق وفي صناعة عجينة الورق بعد إزالة
الراتنج. أما الجذوع المستقيمة فإن أخشابها تستعمل في أعمدة الهاتف والكهرباء وفي النجارة
وفي صناعة عجينة الورق.
صنوبر بروتي: إن خشب صنوبر بروتيا
قاس وثقيل نسبياً ويستعمل في النجارة وأعمدة الهاتف والكهرباء وفي الصناديق وصناعة
عجينة الورق بعد إزالة المادة الراتنجية. ويتميز خشب صنوبر بروتيا عن خشب الصنوبر الحلبي
بأن حلقات النمو السنوية تكون متميزة تماماً، يعطي صنوبر بروتيا كمية من الراتنج أقل
من الصنوبر الحلبي إذ يقدر إنتاج الشجرة من الراتنج في السنة بحوالي 1.5-2 كغ.
كما أنه هناك نوع ثالث ينتشر في
الصين بشكل خاص وعلى جبل هوانغشان (وهو منطقة سياحية معروفة بشكل كبير في الصين) وتسمى
تلك الاشجار بـ ينغكهسونغ. وتعنى صنوبر استقبال الضيوف وهي الشجرة المشهورة في الصين
إلى درجة ان قاعة الشعب الكبرى في بكين تتزين بصورتها. هناك نوع اخر في نفس الجبل يتفرع
عند جذعه إلى شجرتين ويطلقون عليه اسم تونغشينسونغ وتعنى صنوبر القلب الواحد وشجرة
صنوبر تشينغليوسونغ تعني صنوبر الحبيبين أو شجرة صنوبر فنغهوانغسونغ وتعني العنقاء
لأن شكلها يشبه طائر العنقاء الأسطوري.
الصنوبر الثمري: يوجد عدة ضروب للصنوبر
الثمري بعضها متوفر في السوق المحلية باسم الصنوبر الثمري التركي والصنوبر الثمري الصيني
والصنوبر الثمري البلدي.
البيئة[عدل]
Mountain pine beetles killed these Lodgepole Pines in
Prince George, British Columbia.
الصنوبر سهل الزراعة لا يحتاج إلى
متطلبات بيئية كثيرة كما أنه يمنع انجراف التربة ويقاوم التصحر. والصنوبر الثمري بشكل
عام مرن من ناحية المتطلبات البيئية فهو أليف للضوء والحرارة ويتحمل الأراضي الجافة
نسبياً ويفضل الصنوبر المناطق الرطبة وشبه الرطبة، ويمكن ان يعيش في الطابق نصف الجاف
كما يمكنه ان يتحمل درجات حرارة صغرى مطلقة قد تصل إلى - 20 درجة مئوية ودرجات حرارة
عظمى مطلقة أعلى من 40 درجة مئوية، معدل الأمطار السنوي أكثر من / 400/ مم ينتشر في
المناطق السهلية وحتى ارتفاع /1300 / م عن سطح البحر لكن يجود عند الارتفاع / 300/
متر. لا يبال بدرجة حموضة التربة PH=4-9 يتحمل حتى 50% من الكلس الكلي و15% من الكلس الفعال في التربة
لذا يعتبر من الأنواع النافرة للكلس، يتحمل الأراضي الجافة والمحجرة ولا يتحمل الأتربة
المالحة.
تنقع البذور لمدة 24 ساعة في الماء
بدرجة حرارة (4 - 5) درجة مئوية ثم تزرع في الكيس الحاوي على خلطة ترابية بالنسب التالية
(1:1:1) رمل- تراب – سماد وذلك خلال أشهر الخريف وتبقى الشتلة في المشتل مدة عام
كامل ثم تنقل بعدها إلى الأرض الدائمة ليتم تحريجها في المكان المناسب. تبدأ غراس الصنوبر
بالحمل التبشيري عندما يصل عمرها حوالي (12- 15) سنة وتصل إلى ذروة حملها بعمر من
(40-50) سنة.تبلغ كمية البذور التي يمكن الحصول عليها بالهكتار الواحد وسطياً 300 كغ
ويمكن ان تعطي أكثر من ذلك تبعاً للظروف البيئية للشجرة وعمر الشجرة وأعمال الخدمة...
الخ. علماً ان شجرة الصنوبر الثمري تحمل سنوياً أي لا تتصف بالمقاومة ولكن تختلف كمية
إنتاجها من البذور من عام إلى آخر.
الاستعمالات[عدل]
هي شجرة دائمة الخضرة تحوي جذورها
وسوقها على مادة راتنجية زيتية (فعند جرح ساق هذه الاشجار ينساب منها سائل عطري زيتي
عند تقطيره ينفصل عنه الراتنج المعروف بالقلفونية ويبقى الزيت المعروف بزيت التربنتين
حيث يستعمل هذان المكونان في الصناعة والطب) وللصنوبر فائدة طبية لا تخفى على أحد حيث
انه يوصف لأمراض الصدر، مكافح للسعال، يؤخذ منقوع براعم شجره بنسبة 25-40 غ في ليتر
ماء ثلاث ساعات ويشرب ضد الرشوحات المستعصية والنزلات الصدرية عامة وكل علل مجاري التنفس
كما أن زيت التربنتين يستعمل في الصناعات وفي الطب مطهراً ومحمراً للجلد ويستعمل موضعياً
في طب الأسنان لوقف النزيف بعد قلع الأضراس كما يستعمل لتسكين المغص وطرد الديدان
كما أن له فائدة غذائية حيث ان القدماء
كانوا يستخرجون من الصنوبر دقيقاً لصنع الخبز ويعتصر من بذوره زيت وتستخرج منه أنواع
كثيرة مثل الراتنج والتربنتين والقطران النباتي، تصنع من الصنوبر حلويات لذيذة ويشترك
مع غيره من المكسرات في صناعة الحلويات، ويدخل في صنع عدد من المأكولات كتوابل ومزين
لها ومطيب لنكهتها وطعمها.
مراجع[عدل]
^ تعديل
القيمة في ويكي بيانات"معرف Pinus في موسوعة الحياة".
eol.org. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 11 يوليو 2016.
المعلومات الغذائية عن الصنوبر
صنوبر:سنا للطب الأصيل
أيقونة بوابةبوابة علم النبات
مشاريع شقيقة شاهد في كومنز صور
وملفات عن: صنوبر
◄ ع ن ت
مصادر الدباغ
◄ ع ن ت
الاعمال الخشبية
معرفات الأصنوفة
موسوعة الحياة: 14031 GBIF: 2684241 Tropicos: 40009142 ITIS: 18035 ncbi: 3337
Fossilworks: 55062 IPNO: 11681-1 GRIN:
ps://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomygenus.aspx?id=9418 FNA: 125519
FOC: 125519 PLANTS: PINUS AFPD: 193741
تصنيفات: صنوبرأشجار دائمة الخضرةصنوبريةنباتات
//////////
Pine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the tree. For other
uses of the term "pine", see Pine (disambiguation).
Pine tree
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Japanese red pine (Pinus
densiflora),North Korea
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Kingdom:
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Division:
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Class:
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Order:
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Family:
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Genus:
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Subgenera
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Subgenus Strobus
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Subgenus Ducampopinus
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Subgenus Pinus
See Pinus classification for complete
taxonomy to species level. See list of pines by
regionfor list of species by geographical distribution.
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A pine is
any conifer in the genus Pinus, /ˈpiːnuːs/,[1] of the family Pinaceae. Pinus is the sole
genus in thesubfamily Pinoideae. The Plant
List compiled by the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew and Missouri
Botanical Garden accepts 126 species names of pines as current,
together with 35 unresolved species and many more synonyms.[2]
Contents
Pine Forest in Vagamon, SouthernWestern Ghats, Kerala (India)
The
modern English name pine derives from Latin pinus,
which some have traced to the Indo-European base *pīt- ‘resin’ (source of
English pituitary).[3] In the past
(pre-19th century) they were often known asfir, from Old Norse fura,
by way of Middle English firre.
The Old Norse name is still used for pines in some modern north European
languages, in Danish fyr,
in Norwegian fura/fure/furu, Swedishfura/furu, Dutch vuren, and German Föhre, but in modern
English, firis now restricted to fir (Abies)
and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga).
Main article: Pinus classification
Pines
are gymnosperms. The genus is divided into three
subgenera, which can be distinguished by cone, seed, and leaf characters:
·
Pinus subg. Pinus,
the yellow, or hard pine group, generally with harder wood and two or three
needles per fascicle[4]
·
Pinus subg. Ducampopinus,
the foxtail or pinyon group
·
Pinus subg. Strobus,
the white, or soft pine group, generally with softer wood and five needles per
fascicle[4]
A Khasi pine in Benguet, Philippines
Huangshan pine (Pinus hwangshanensis), Anhui,
China
Most
regions of the Northern Hemisphere (see List of pines by
region) host some native species of pines. One species (Sumatran pine) crosses the equator in Sumatra
to 2°S. In North America, various species occur in regions at latitudes from as
far north as 66°N to as far south as 12°N.
Various
species have been introduced to temperate and subtropicalregions of both hemispheres, where
they are grown as timber or cultivated
as ornamental plants in parks and gardens. A number of such introduced species
have become invasive[5] and threaten native
ecosystems.
Ancient Pinus longaeva, Nevada, USA
Pine
trees are evergreen,
coniferous resinous trees (or,
rarely, shrubs) growing 3–80 m (10–260 ft)
tall, with the majority of species reaching 15–45 m (50–150 ft) tall.
The smallest areSiberian dwarf pine and Potosi pinyon, and the tallest is a
81.79 m (268.35 ft) tall ponderosa pine located in southernOregon's Rogue
River-Siskiyou National Forest.[6]
The bark of
most pines is thick and scaly, but some species have thin, flaky bark. The
branches are produced in regular "pseudo whorls", actually a very
tight spiral but appearing like a ring of branches arising from the same point.
Many pines are uninodal, producing just one such whorl of branches
each year, from buds at the tip of the year's new shoot, but others are multinodal,
producing two or more whorls of branches per year. The spiral growth of
branches, needles, and cone scales are arranged in Fibonacci number ratios.[citation needed] The new spring
shoots are sometimes called "candles"; they are covered in brown or
whitish bud scales and point upward at first, then later turn green and spread
outward. These "candles" offer foresters a means to evaluate fertility of the soil and vigour of the
trees.
Pines
are long-lived, and typically reach ages of 100–1,000 years, some even more.
The longest-lived is theGreat Basin
bristlecone pine, Pinus longaeva. One individual of this
species, dubbed "Methuselah",
is one of the world's
oldest living organisms at around 4,600 years old. This tree
can be found in the White
Mountainsof California.[7] An older tree, now
cut down, was dated at 4,900 years old. It was discovered in a grove
beneath Wheeler Peak and
it is now known as "Prometheus" after the Greek immortal.[citation needed]
Illustration of needles, cones, and seeds
of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris)
Pines
have four types of leaf:
·
Juvenile leaves, which follow
immediately on seedlings and young plants, 2–6 cm long, single, green or
often blue-green, and arranged spirally on the shoot. These are produced for
six months to five years, rarely longer.
·
Scale leaves, similar to bud scales,
small, brown and non-photosynthetic, and arranged spirally like the juvenile
leaves.
·
Needles, the adult leaves, which
are green (photosynthetic),
bundled in clusters (fascicles) of 1–6, commonly 2–5, needles together,
each fascicle produced from a small bud on a dwarf shoot in the axil of a scale
leaf. These bud scales often remain on the fascicle as a basal sheath. The
needles persist for 1.5–40 years, depending on species. If a shoot is damaged
(e.g. eaten by an animal), the needle fascicles just below the damage will
generate a bud which can then replace the lost leaves.
Pines
are mostly monoecious,
having the male and female cones on the same tree, though a few
species are sub-dioecious,
with individuals predominantly, but not wholly, single-sex. The male cones are
small, typically 1–5 cm long, and only present for a short period (usually
in spring, though autumn in a few pines), falling as soon as they have shed
their pollen. The female cones take 1.5–3 years
(depending on species) to mature after pollination, with actual fertilization delayed
one year. At maturity the female cones are 3–60 cm long. Each cone has
numerous spirally arranged scales, with two seeds on each fertile scale; the
scales at the base and tip of the cone are small and sterile, without seeds.
The seeds are mostly small and winged, and are anemophilous (wind-dispersed),
but some are larger and have only a vestigial wing, and are bird-dispersed
(see below). At maturity, the cones usually open to release the seeds, but in
some of the bird-dispersed species (e.g. whitebark pine), the seeds are only released
by the bird breaking the cones open. In others, the seeds are stored in closed
("serotinous") cones for many years until an environmental cue
triggers the cones to open, releasing the seeds. The most common form of serotiny
is pyriscence, in which a resin binds the cones shut until melted by a forest
fire.
A prescribed fire in a European black pine (Pinus
nigra) woodland, Portugal
Pines
grow well in acid soils, some also on calcareous soils; most require good soil
drainage, preferring sandy soils, but a few (e.g. lodgepole pine) will tolerate poorly drained
wet soils. A few are able to sprout after forest fires (e.g. Canary Island pine).
Some species of pines (e.g. bishop pine) need fire to regenerate, and
their populations slowly decline under fire suppression regimes. Several
species are adapted to extreme conditions imposed by elevation and latitude
(e.g. Siberian dwarf pine, mountain pine, whitebark pine and thebristlecone pines). The pinyon pines and a
number of others, notably Turkish pine and gray pine, are particularly well adapted to
growth in hot, dry semi-desert climates.[citation needed]
The
seeds are commonly eaten by birds, such as grouse, crossbills, jays,
nuthatches, siskins, woodpeckers, and by squirrels. Some birds, notably the spotted nutcracker, Clark's nutcracker and Pinyon jay, are of importance in distributing
pine seeds to new areas. Pine needles are sometimes eaten by some Lepidoptera(butterfly and moth)
species (see list
of Lepidoptera that feed on pines), the Symphytan species pine sawfly, and goats.[citation needed]
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Logging Pinus ponderosa, Arizona, USA
Pinus sylvestris prepared for
transport, Hungary
Tongue and groove solid pineflooring
Pines
are among the most commercially important tree species valued for their timber
and wood pulpthroughout the world. In temperate
and tropical regions, they are fast-growing softwoods that will grow in relatively
dense stands, their acidic decaying needles inhibiting the sprouting of
competing hardwoods. Commercial pines are grown in plantations for timber that is denser,
more resinous, and therefore more durable than spruce (Picea). Pine wood is
widely used in high-value carpentry items such as furniture, window frames,
panelling, floors and roofing, and the resin of
some species is an important source ofturpentine.
Many
pine species make attractive ornamental plantings for parks and
larger gardens with a variety of dwarfcultivars being suitable for smaller
spaces. Pines are also commercially grown and harvested for Christmas trees. Pine cones, the largest and
most durable of all conifer cones, are
craft favorites. Pine boughs, appreciated especially in wintertime for their
pleasant smell and greenery, are popularly cut for decorations. A number of
species are attacked by nematodes, causing pine wilt disease, which can kill some quickly.
Pine needles are also used for making decorative articles like baskets, trays,
pots, etc. This Native American skill is now being replicated across the world.
Pine needle handicrafts are made in the US, Canada, Mexico, Nicaragua and
India. Pine needles serve as food for variousLepidoptera. See List
of Lepidoptera that feed on pines.
Because
pines have no insect or decay resistant qualities after logging, they are
generally recommended for construction purposes as indoor use only (ex. indoor
drywall framing). This wood left outside can be expected to last no more than
12–18 months depending on the local climate. It is commonly referred to by
several different names which include North American timber, SPF (spruce, pine,
fir) and whitewood.
When
grown for sawing timber, pine plantations can be harvested after 30 years, with
some stands being allowed to grow up to 50 (as the wood value increases more
quickly as the trees age). Imperfect trees (such as those with bent trunks or
forks, smaller trees, or diseased trees) are removed in a "thinning"
operation every five to ten years. Thinning allows the best trees to grow much
faster, because it prevents weaker trees from competing for sunlight, water,
and nutrients. Young trees removed during thinning are used for pulpwood, while
most older ones are good enough for saw timber.
The
final wood quality can be improved by pruning small branches at ages 5, 7, and
9. Pruning usually goes up to a height of 6 metres (20 ft). This results
in smooth timber with no knots, which is considerably more valuable. [8]
A
30-year-old commercial pine tree grown in good conditions will be about 0.3
metres (1.0 ft) in diameter and about 20 metres (66 ft) high. After
50 years, the same tree will be about 0.5 metres (1.6 ft) in diameter and
25 metres (82 ft) high, and its wood will be worth about 7 times as much
as the 30-year-old tree. [9]
Trees
are planted 3 to 4 metres apart, or about 1000 per hectare (100,000 per square
kilometer).
Edible seeds of the Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis)
Some
species have large seeds, called pine nuts, that are harvested and sold for
cooking and baking. They are an essential ingredient of Pesto alla
genovese.
The
soft, moist, white inner bark (cambium) found clinging to the woody
outer bark is edible and very high in vitamins A and C. It can be eaten raw in slices as a snack or
dried and ground up into a powder for use as anersatz flour or thickener in stews,
soups, and other foods, such as bark bread. Adirondack Indians got their name
from the Mohawk Indian word atirú:taks,
meaning "tree eaters".
A tea made
by steeping young, green pine needles in boiling water (known as
"tallstrunt" in Sweden) is high in vitamins A and C.
Pine
has been listed as
one of the 38 substances used to prepare Bach flower remedies,[10] a kind ofalternative medicine promoted[clarification
needed by whom?] for its effect on
health. However, according to Cancer Research UK,
"there is no scientific evidence to prove that flower remedies can
control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer".[11]
4. ^ Jump up to:a b Burton
Verne Barnes; Warren Herbert Wagner (January 2004).Michigan Trees: A Guide to the Trees of the Great Lakes
Region. University of Michigan Press. pp. 81–. ISBN 0-472-08921-8.
5. Jump up^ "Pinus ssp. (tree), General Impact". Global
Invasive Species Database. Invasive Species Specialist Group. 13 March 2006.
Retrieved2 March 2011.
6. Jump up^ Fattig, Paul (2011-01-23). "Tallest of the tall". Mail
Tribune (Medford, Oregon). Retrieved 2011-01-27.
7. Jump up^ Ryan, Michael; David M. Richardson
(December 1999). "The Complete Pine". BioScience 49 (12):
1023–1024. doi:10.2307/1313736.
9. Jump up^ Frank A. Roth II, Extension
Forester. "Thinning to improve pine timber" (PDF). University of Arkensas
Division of Agriculture. Retrieved April 2016.
10. Jump up^ D. S. Vohra (1 June 2004). Bach Flower Remedies: A Comprehensive Study.
B. Jain Publishers. p. 3. ISBN 978-81-7021-271-3.
Retrieved2 September 2013.
·
Farjon, A. 1984, 2nd
edition 2005. Pines. E. J. Brill, Leiden. ISBN 90-04-13916-8
·
Little, E. L., Jr., and
Critchfield, W. B. 1969. Subdivisions of the Genus Pinus (Pines).
US Department of Agriculture Misc. Publ. 1144 (Superintendent of Documents
Number: A 1.38:1144).
·
Richardson, D. M. (ed.).
1998. Ecology and Biogeography of Pinus. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge. 530 p. ISBN 0-521-55176-5
·
Sulavik, Stephen B.
2007. Adirondack; Of Indians and Mountains, 1535-1838. Purple
Mountain Press, Fleischmanns, NY. 244 p. ISBN 1-930098-79-0 ISBN 978-1-930098-79-4
·
Mirov, N. T. 1967. The
Genus Pinus. Ronald Press, New York (out of print).
·
Mirov, N. T.; Stanley, R.
G. (1959). "The Pine Tree". Annual Review of Plant
Physiology 10: 223. doi:10.1146/annurev.pp.10.060159.001255.
·
Philips, Roger. Trees of
North America and Europe, Random House, Inc., New York ISBN 0-394-50259-0, 1979.
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