فقاح . [
ف ُق ْ قا ] (ع اِ) شکوفه ٔ
اذخر. (منتهی الارب ). || شکوفه ٔ گیاه هرچه باشد. (منتهی الارب ) (از اقرب
الموارد). || (ص ) زن نیکوروی و خوب صورت . (منتهی الارب ). زن نیکوخلقت . (از
اقرب الموارد). || (اِ) گیاهی است . (منتهی الارب ). || اسم جنس شکوفه هاست .
(تحفه ٔ حکیم مؤمن ). لیث گوید: انواع عطراست . و فقاح الملح شوره را گویند.
(ترجمه ٔ صیدنه
).
- فقاح السنبل ؛ شکوفه ای بنوع خوشه است که بسریانی نفخیرا برودین و برومی اینکس طوخس ... نامند. (تحفه ٔ حکیم مؤمن (.
- فقاح الکرم* ؛ شکوفه ٔ رز. (فهرست مخزن الادویه ) (تحفه ٔ حکیم مؤمن ).
- فقاح الملح ؛ زهرةالملح . (فهرست مخزن الادویه ).شوره . (از ترجمه ٔ صیدنه ).
- فقاح سورنجان ؛ اصابع هرمس است . (تحفه ٔ حکیم مؤمن ). به فارسی شنبلیله و به عربی اصابع هرمس نامند. (فهرست مخزن الادویه ).
- فقاح السنبل ؛ شکوفه ای بنوع خوشه است که بسریانی نفخیرا برودین و برومی اینکس طوخس ... نامند. (تحفه ٔ حکیم مؤمن (.
- فقاح الکرم* ؛ شکوفه ٔ رز. (فهرست مخزن الادویه ) (تحفه ٔ حکیم مؤمن ).
- فقاح الملح ؛ زهرةالملح . (فهرست مخزن الادویه ).شوره . (از ترجمه ٔ صیدنه ).
- فقاح سورنجان ؛ اصابع هرمس است . (تحفه ٔ حکیم مؤمن ). به فارسی شنبلیله و به عربی اصابع هرمس نامند. (فهرست مخزن الادویه ).
* کرم . [ ک َ ] (ع اِ)
درخت انگور. (از برهان ) (ناظم الاطباء). تاک . رز. واحد آن کرمة است . (از منتهی الارب
). عنب . (از اقرب الموارد). رز. مو. مَیوانه . (یادداشت مؤلف ). ج ، کُروم . (اقرب
الموارد) (ناظم الاطباء). به فارسی تاک و رز و ماو نامند. بستانی و بری می باشد. بری
ثمردار انگور او سیاه و ریزه و با عفوصت و شراب آن قابض و سیاه می باشد و بری بی ثمر
را در تنکابن دیو رز گویند. (تحفه ).پرنفعترین درختان است و ثمراتش به الوان است تا
پنجاه و چند نوع گفته اند. (نزهةالقلوب ). ابن مها درخت اورا مطلق ذکر نکند، بلکه کرم
الشراب گوید و آن درخت تاک بود و تقید او به شراب به جهت آن است که کرم مختلف است و
چون مطلق ذکر کند معلوم نشود که مراد کدام است و یکی از انواع او آن است که عرب او
را کرم البری گوید و مویزج از او حاصل آید و عسالیج الکرم آن باشد که به شبه رشته ها
از نبات او ظاهر شود بدان تعلق کند به آنچه نزدیک او باشد و او را خیوط نیز گویند.
شکوفه ٔ او را فقاح الکرم گویند و به رومی او را زسطراوس گویند. لیث گوید: صفحه ٔ درخت
تاک را عرب زرجون گوید واین لغت اهل طایف است و زرجون معرب است و فارسی او زرگون است
یعنی او برنگ زر ماند و خمر را به زر تشبیه کنند و صفحه ٔ او را نیز به زر تشبیه کنند.
«اوس » گوید: تاک دشتی را شاخها خردتر باشد و ستبر بود و برگ او در صورت خوبتر بود
و به نبات عنب الحیه ماند و منبت عنب الحیه در بساتین بود و شکوفه ٔ او به موی حیوان
ماند و خوشه های او خرد بود و رنگ او چون رسیده باشدسرخ بود و برگ و شاخ سفید تاک که
عرب او را تا»الابیض گوید به برگ تاک بستانی مشابه بود و تعلق او به درختی که در جوار
او بود محکمتر باشد و میوه ٔ او سرخ باشد و در بعضی مواضع رنگ پوست از او کنند. و سیاه
تاک که عرب او را کرم الاسود گوید برگ او به برگ پوزک ماند و پوزک لبلاب بود و بر درخت
و نباتی که در جوار اوست تعلق کند و میوه ٔ او پیش از رسیدن سبز بود و چون برسد سیاه
باشد و بیرون بیخ او را رنگ سیاه باشد و میان او کبود بود به شبه آسمانگون . (ترجمه
ٔ صیدنه (.
- آب کرم ؛ شراب . خمر. (یادداشت مؤلف ( :
نه نان حنطه به کرسان
نه آب کرم به خنب
نه گوشت در رمه دارم
نه آرد در کندو.
نزاری .
- بنت الکرم ؛ دختر رز. شراب . خمر. (یادداشت مؤلف (.
- عسالیج الکرم ؛ آن باشد که به شبه رشته ها از
نبات او ظاهر شود و بدان تعلق کند (یعنی بیاویزد) به آنچه نزدیک او باشد. (ترجمه ٔ
صیدنه ). رجوع به کرم شود.
- کرم الابیض ؛ سفید تاک . (ترجمه ٔ صیدنه ). رجوع
به کرم شود.
- کرم البری ؛ یکی از انواع کرم که مویزج از او
حاصل آید. (ترجمه ٔ صیدنه ). رجوع به کرم شود.
- کرم الشراب ؛تاک . (ترجمه ٔ صیدنه ). رجوع به
کرم شود.
|| باغ انگور. موستان . رز. (یادداشت مؤلف ). تاکستان
. (فرهنگ فارسی معین ). || توسعاً مطلق باغ . (یادداشت مؤلف ). درختانی که نزدیک هم
کاشته باشند. مقابل بوستان . (فرهنگ فارسی معین ). زمینی که گرد آن دیوار باشد و در
آن اشجار درهم و فراوان که زراعت در آن ممکن نباشد. ج ، کروم . (ازاقرب الموارد): و
اخبرنی ایضا غیره ان منها [ من الارجوان ] ایضا کثیر بکروم جبل قرطبه من بلادالاندلس
. (مفردات ابن البیطار). || حمیل . حلی . یقال : رأیت فی عنقها کرماً حسناً من لؤلؤ.
|| زمین پاکیزه و مُنقّی از سنگ ریزه ها. || نوعی از زرگری در گلوبندها. (ناظم الاطباء)
(منتهی الارب ). ج ، کروم . (ناظم الاطباء).
- بنات کرم ؛ نوعی زیور که در جاهلیت می ساختند.
(ناظم الاطباء) (از منتهی الارب ) (از اقرب الموارد(.
|| قلاده . (از اقرب
الموارد). زر و گردن بند. (مهذب الاسماء). || مرد مسلمان . (از اقرب الموارد).
///////////
فقاح الکرم
بپارسی ول خوانند و آن شکوفه انگور است و
طبیعت آن سرد بود
______________________________
صاحب مخزن الادویه می نویسد: شکوفه انگور
است بیونانی دوذاطیاطون و بورمی اینکس طراخیون و بسریانی نفجی اوکبیشا و بفارسی ول
نامند بری و بستانی می باشد و بهترین آن بری تازه آنست.
اختیارات بدیعی
////////////
کرم. بپارسی درخت انگور گویند و به شیرازی رز خوانند
و رازی گوید آن سرد و خشک است و ورق وی و خیوط وی چون سحق کنند صداع را نافع بود و
ورق وی چون تنها ضماد کنند یا با سویق الشعیر بر ورم گرم معده و التهاب آن بغایت نافع
بود و عصاره وی ورق وی قرحه امعا را نافع بود و درد معده که از گرمی بود و کسی که خون
قی کند و زنان آبستن را نافع بود و خیوط وی چون در آب خیسانند و بیاشامند همین عمل
کند و در زمان بهار چون شاخهای وی ببرند آبی که از آن بچکد نقطه نقطه بر قضبان منجمد
شود مانند صمغ بود چون با شراب بیاشامند سنگ بریزاند و چون بر قوبا و جرب متقرح و غیر
متقرح مالند نافع بود چون احتیاج مالیدن وی بود باید که پیش از آن عضو را به نطرون
بشویند و اگر با روغن زیت بمالند و ادمان آن کنند موی برویاند خاصه دمعه که از قضبان
تر وی گیرند و مقوی معده بود اما مخشن حلق بود و مصلح وی کثیرا بود و صمغ عربی و خاکستر
چوب وی چون با سرکه ضماد کنند بر مقعدی که بواسیر از آن قطع کرده باشند نافع بود و
در گزندگی افعی همین عمل کند و چون با روغن گل و سداب و سرکه ضماد کنند بر ورک گرم
که در سر بود سود دهد
______________________________
صاحب مخزن الادویه
می‌گوید: کرم بفتح کاف و سکون را و میم لغت عربی است واحد آن کرمه و جمع آن کرمات و
بیونانی اولیاطیوم و به سریانی کبیشاحمرا و برومی دیدرون اسایا و بفارسی تاک‌ورز و
بهندی داکهه کاجهار نامند
لاتینVITEX VINIFERA فرانسهVIN انگلیسیVINE
اختیارات بدیعی، ص:
374
///////////////
ریش بابا گونه‌ای از انگوری‌ها بومی منطقه مدیترانه، اروپای مرکزی و جنوب غرب آسیا از مغرب و پرتغال تا جنوب آلمان و از شرق تا شمال ایران است.
/////////////
الكرمة النبيذية هي النوع الرئيسي المستخدم لإنتاج العنب والنبيذ.
تنتمي إلى جنس الكرمة من الفصيلة الكرمية.
البيئة والانتشار[عدل]
نورات واوراق الكرمة النبيذية
الوصف النباتي[عدل]
//////////////////
به عبری:
גפן היין או בקיצור גפן (שם מדעי: Vitis
vinifera) היא מין של צמח מטפס ממשפחת הגפניים. פרי הגפן הוא ענב,
המשמש הן כפרי מאכל, כפרי
מיובש לצימוקים ולהכנת יין.
///////////
به پنجابی شراب
انگور:
شراب انگور انگور دے اک ونڈ اے جیدی شراب بندی اے۔ ایہ ایران توں لے کے جرمنی پرتگال تے مراکش تک اگدا اے۔ ایہ اک ویل بوٹا اے۔ ایہدے پتے گول دل والی شکل دے ہوندے نیں۔
ایہ ویل 10 توں 20 میٹر تک لمی ہوسکدی اے۔
////////////////
به آذری مِدِنی
اوزوم:
///////////////
Vitis vinifera (common grape
vine) is a species of Vitis, native to the Mediterranean region, central Europe, and
southwestern Asia,
from Morocco and Portugal north
to southern Germany and
east to northern Iran.[1] There
are currently between 5,000 and 10,000 varieties of Vitis
vinifera grapes though only a few are of commercial significance for
wine and table grape production.[2]
It is a liana growing
to 35 yards (32 m) tall, with flaky bark. The leaves are
alternate, palmately lobed, 5–20 cm (2.0–7.9 in) long and broad.
The fruit is
a berry, known as a grape; in the wild
species it is 6 mm (0.24 in) diameter and ripens dark purple to
blackish with a pale wax bloom; in cultivated plants it is usually much larger,
up to 3 cm (1.2 in) long, and can be green, red, or purple (black).
The species typically occurs in humid forests and streamsides.
The wild grape is often classified as V.
vinifera subsp. sylvestris (in some classifications
considered Vitis sylvestris), with V. vinifera subsp. vinifera restricted
to cultivated forms. Domesticated vines have hermaphroditeflowers, but subsp. sylvestris is dioecious (male and female flowers
on separate plants) and pollination is required for fruit to develop.
The grape is eaten fresh, processed to make wine or juice,
or dried to produce raisins. Cultivars of Vitis viniferaform the
basis of the majority of wines produced around the world. All of the familiar
wine varieties belong to Vitis vinifera, which is cultivated on
every continent except for Antarctica,
and in all the major wine regions of the world.
Contents
[show]
History[edit]
|
This section needs additional citations
for verification. Please help improve
this article by adding citations
to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed. (June 2014)
|
Humans are known to have interacted with the Vitis
vinifera in the Neolithic
period.
Wild grapes were harvested by
foragers and early farmers. For thousands of years, the fruit has been
harvested for both medicinal and nutritional value; its history is intimately
entwined with the history of wine.[citation needed]
Changes in pip shape (narrower in domesticated forms)
and distribution point to domestication occurring about 3500–3000 BC, in
southwest Asia, South Caucasus (Armenia and Georgia),
or the Western Black Sea shore region (Romania and Bulgaria).
The earliest evidence of domesticated grapes has been
found at Gadachrili Gora, near the
village of Imiri, Marneuli Municipality, in southeastern Republic of Georgia; carbon-dating points to
the date of about 6000 BC.[3][4][5]
Grape pips dating back to the V-IVth millennia B.C.
were also found in Shulaveri; others dating back to the IVth millennium B.C.
were also found in Khizanaant Gora, all in the Republic of Georgia.[6]
Cultivation of the domesticated grape spread to other
parts of the Old World in pre-historic or early historic times.[4]
The first written accounts of grapes and wine can be
found in the Epic of Gilgamesh, an ancient Sumerian text
from the third millennium BC. There are also numerous hieroglyphic references
from ancient Egypt, according to which wine was reserved exclusively for
priests, state functionaries and the pharaoh.[citation needed]
Grape harvest on Etruscanterracotta
from the 6th century BC
The ancient Greeks introduced grape growing and wine
making to Europe in the Minoan age.[dubious – discuss] Hesiodin his Works
and Days gives detailed descriptions of grape harvests and wine making
techniques, and there are also many references in Homer. Greek
colonists then introduced these practices in their colonies, especially in
southern Italy (Magna Grecia), which was even known as Enotria due to its
propitious climate.
The Etruscans improved
wine making techniques and developed an export trade even beyond the Mediterranean
basin.[citation needed]
The ancient Romans further developed the techniques
learnt from the Etruscans, as shown by numerous works of literature containing
information that is still valid today: De
Agri Cultura (around 160 BC) by Cato
the Elder, De re rustica by Marcus Terentius Varro, the Georgics by Virgil and De re
rustica by Columella.[citation needed]
During the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, the long crisis
of the Roman Empire generated instability in the countryside which led to a
reduction of viticulture in general, which was mainly sustained only close to
towns and cities and along coastlines.[citation needed]
Between the 5th and 10th centuries, viticulture was
sustained almost exclusively by the different religious orders in monasteries.
The Benedictines and others extended the grape growing limit northwards and
also planted new vineyards at higher altitudes than was customary before. Apart
from ‘ecclesiastical’ viticulture, there also developed, especially in France,
a ‘noble’ viticulture, practiced by the aristocracy as a symbol of prestige.[citation needed]
Vineyard in Burgundy
Grape growing was a significant economic activity in
the Middle east up to the 7th century, when the expansion of Islam caused it to
decline.[citation needed]
Between the Low Middle Ages and the Renaissance,
viticulture began to flourish again. Demographic pressure, population
concentration in towns and cities, and the increased spending power of artisans
and merchants gave rise to increased investment in viticulture, which became
economically feasible once more.[citation needed]
Much was written during the Renaissance on grape
growing and wine production, favouring a more scientific approach. This
literature can be considered the origin of modern ampelography.[citation needed]
Grapes followed European colonies around the world,
coming to North America around the 17th century, and toAfrica, South
America and Australia. In North America it formed hybrids with
native species from the Vitis genus; some of these were
intentional hybrids created to combat phylloxera,
an insect pest
which affected the European grapevine to a much greater extent than North
American ones and in fact managed to devastate European wine production in a
matter of years. Later, North American rootstocks became widely used to
graft V. vinifera cultivars so as to withstand the presence of
phylloxera.[citation needed]
V. vinifera accounts for the majority of
world wine production; all of the most familiar grape varieties used for wine
production belong to V. vinifera.[7]
In Europe, Vitis vinifera is concentrated in the
central and southern regions; in Asia, in the western
regions such as Anatolia, the Caucasus,
the Middle
east, and in China; in Africa, along the northern Mediterranean coast
and in South Africa; in North
America, in California and also other areas like Michigan, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Washington State, British
Columbia, Ontario and Québec;
in South America in Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Peru and Brazil; and inOceania in Australia and New
Zealand.
In the second half of the 20th century there was a
shift in attitude in viticulture from traditional techniques to the scientific
method based on fields such as microbiology, chemistry and ampelography. This
change came about also due to changes in economic and cultural aspects and in
the way of life and in the consumption habits of wide sectors of the population
starting to demand quality products.[citation needed]
|
Genomic information
|
|
|
NCBI genome ID
|
|
|
diploid
|
|
|
about 500 Mb
|
|
|
Number of chromosomes
|
19 pairs
|
|
2008
|
|
|
Sequenced organelle
|
|
Nature magazine published the genome
sequence of V. vinifera.[8] This
work was a collaboration between Italian researchers (Consorzio
Interuniversitario Nazionale per la Biologia Molecolare delle Piante, Istituto
di Genomica Applicata) and French researchers (Genoscope and Institut National de la
Recherche Agronomique). Vitis vinifera is the fourth
angiosperm species whose genome has been completely sequenced. The results of
this analysis contribute significantly to understanding the evolution of plants
over time and of the genes involved in the aromatic characteristics of wine.
In March 2007, scientists from Australia's Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation(CSIRO), working in the
Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture, reported that their "research
suggests that extremely rare and independent mutations in two genes [VvMYBA1 and VvMYBA2 of
red grapes] produced a single white grapevine that was the parent of almost all
of the world's white grape varieties. If only one gene had been mutated, most
grapes would still be red and we would not have the more than 3000 white grape
cultivars available today."[9][10]
Uses[edit]
A cultivated Common Grape Vine,Vitis vinifera subsp. vinifera
Use of grapes is known
to date back to Neolithic times, following the discovery in 1996 of
7,000-year-old winestorage
jars in present-day northern Iran.[11] Further
evidence shows the Mesopotamians and Ancient
Egyptians had vine plantations and winemaking skills. Greek
philosophers praised the healing powers of grapes both whole and in
the form of wine. Vitis vinifera cultivation and winemaking in China began
during the Han Dynasty in the 2nd century[12] with
the importation of the species from Ta-Yuan.
However, wild vine "mountain grapes" like Vitis
thunbergii were being used for wine making before that time.[13] In traditional medicine of India V.
vinifera is used in prescriptions for cough, respiratory
tract catarrh,
subacute cases of enlarged liver and spleen, as well as in alcohol-based tonics
(Aasavs).[14]
Using the sap of grapevines, European folk healers
sought to cure skin and eye diseases. Other historical uses include the leaves being used
to stop bleeding, pain and inflammation of hemorrhoids.
Unripe grapes were used for treating sore throats, and raisins were given as
treatments for consumption (tuberculosis), constipation and thirst. Ripe
grapes were used for the treatment of cancer, cholera, smallpox, nausea, skin and
eye infections as well as kidney and liver
diseases.
Seedless grape variety were developed to appeal to
consumers, but researchers are now discovering that many of the healthful
properties of grapes may actually come from the seeds themselves, thanks to
their enriched phytochemical content.[15][16]
Grapevine leaves are filled with minced meat (such as
lamb, pork or beef), rice and onions in the making of Balkan traditional dolma.
A grapevine is depicted on the reverse of the Croatian
2 lipa coin, minted since 1993.
Chemistry[edit]
Phenolics[edit]
V. vinifera contains many phenolic
compounds. Anthocyanins can be found in the skin of the
berries, hydroxycinnamic acids in the pulp and
condensed tannins of the proanthocyanidins type
in the seeds. Stilbenoids can be found in the skin and in wood.
Stilbenoids[edit]
Trans-resveratrol is
a phytoalexin produced
against the growth of fungal pathogens such as Botrytis
cinerea[17] and delta-viniferin is
another grapevinephytoalexin produced following fungal infection by Plasmopara viticola.[18]
Anthocyanins[edit]
Vitis vinifera red cultivars are rich
in anthocyanins that
impart their colour to the berries (generally in the skin). The 5 most basic
anthocyanins found in grape are:
acetylated anthocyanins
coumaroylated anthocyanins
caffeoylated anthocyanins
Other chemicals[edit]
Isoprenoid monoterpens are present in grape, above all
acyclic linalool, geraniol, nerol, citronellol, homotrienol and monocyclic
α-terpineol,
mostly occurring as glycosides. Carotenoids accumulate in ripening grape
berries. Oxidation of carotenoids produces volatile fragments, C13-norisoprenoids.
These are strongly odoriferous compounds, such as β-ionone (aroma
of viola), damascenone (aroma of exotic fruits), β-damascone (aroma
of rose) and β-ionol(aroma of flowers and fruits).
Tetrahydro-β-carbolines are indole alkaloids occurring in grape
to a low amount and contributing to its antioxidant power.[21]Melatonin, an alkaloid, has
been identified in grape.[22]
See also[edit]
References[edit]
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Rusishvili, The
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difference" (Press release). Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. 2 March 2007. Retrieved17
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A.R.; Lee, E.; et al. (March 2007). "White
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11.
Jump up^ Berkowitz,
Mark, The Archaeological Institute of America (September–October 1996). "World's
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12.
Jump up^ Plocher,
T; Rouse, G; Hart, M. (2003). Discovering
Grapes and Wine in the Far North of China
14.
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L; Waltenberger, B; Pferschy-Wenzig, EM; Blunder, M; Liu, X; Malainer, C;
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agonists of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ): a
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J, Yu J, Pohorly JE, Kakuda Y (2003). "Polyphenolics in grape
seeds-biochemistry and functionality". J Med Food 6 (4):
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Jump up^ Parry
J, Su L, Moore J, et al. (May 2006). "Chemical compositions, antioxidant
capacities, and antiproliferative activities of selected fruit seed
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17.
Jump up^ Favaron,
F.; Lucchetta, M.; Odorizzi, S.; Pais da Cunha, A. T.; Sella, L. (2009). "The role of
grape polyphenols on trans-resveratrol activity against Botrytis cinerea and of
fungal laccase on the solubility of putative grape PR proteins" (PDF). Journal
of Plant Pathology 91 (3): 579–588.doi:10.4454/jpp.v91i3.549 (inactive
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18.
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A. M.; d’Alessandro, A.; Fagioni, M.; Magro, P.; Zolla, L. (2012).
"Production of the phytoalexins trans-resveratrol and delta-viniferin in
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19.
Jump up^ Núñez,
V.; Monagas, M.; Gomez-Cordovés, M. C.; Bartolomé, B. (2004). "Vitis
vinifera L. Cv. Graciano grapes characterized by its anthocyanin
profile".Postharvest Biology and Technology 31: 69. doi:10.1016/S0925-5214(03)00140-6.
20.
Jump up^ Monagas,
María; Núñez, Verónica; Bartolomé, Begoña; Gómez-Cordovés, Carmen (2003). "Anthocyanin-derived
Pigments in Graciano, Tempranillo, and Cabernet Sauvignon Wines Produced in
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Marcello; Faoro, Franco (2006). "Grape phytochemicals: A bouquet of old
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