طین . (ع اِ) گل
. (منتهی الارب ) (آنندراج ). طینة اخص ّ است از آن . خاک : و اذقلنا للملئکة اسجدوا
لاَّدم َ فسجدوا الاّ ابلیس قال اءاسجد لمن خلقت طیناً (قرآن 61/17)؛ یاد کن ای محمد
چون ما گفتیم فرشتگان را که سجده کنید آدم را، سجده کردند مگر ابلیس که او گفت : من
سجده کنم کسی را که تو او را از گل آفریدی ؟ (از تفسیر ابوالفتوح رازی )...
کلوخ . خاک نمناک
. (غیاث اللغات ): قِدرٌ من طین ؛ دیگ سفالین . || مجموع گِلها مبرد و مجفف بود. (اختیارات
بدیعی ). طین به لغت عربست و بپارسی گل گویند و به هندی ماتی گویند. ارجانی گوید: جمله
گلها سرد و خشک است ، بهترین خاکها خاک خالص از ریگ و شوره ٔ گوگرد است و طین الحر
نامند از جهت پاکی او و بفارسی خاک رست گویند و اقسام خاکها بعد از احراق و شستن سردتر
و لطیفتر و در افعال ثابت تر میباشند. جمیع خاکهای خالص سرد و خشکند سوای طین بلد المصطکی
، و لطیف ترین خاکها آنست که در آبهای شیرین جاری ته نشین شده باشد و طین مصری که از
آب نیل حاصل میشود بهتر از اقسام آن و مجموع او رادع اورام حاره و مقوی اعضاء سست و
رافع حرارات مقعد و اعیاء که از سواری بسیار و حرکات حادث شده باشد. و چون خاک خالص
رادر آبهای مغشوش و شور ریخته بگذارند تا ته نشین شود اصلاح آن میکند و چون با آب تلخ
و شور مخلوط کرده عرق بکشند شیرین میشود و مجربست . و خاکهای غیرخالص در افعال شبیه
به جزو مخلوط اوست و خاک که همیشه آفتاب بر او تابیده باشد، طلای او با سرکه جهت گزیدن
هوام بی عدیل است و آنچه آتش بسیار دیده باشد بغایت مجفف و منقی بشره و جالی بهق و
رافع خشونت بدن و حکه با سرکه جهت گزیدن زنبور و خاک شور یا نمک و سرکه جهت کچلی سر
اطفال مجرب و جمیع خاکها مسدد و رافع آن انیسون است و بوی کاهگل کهنه که آب و گلاب
بر وی بپاشند، مقوی دل و روح نفسانی و رافع غشی و التهاب و ضماد او با سرکه جهت گزیدن
هوام و رادع اورام حاره و عرق او که با گلاب و عرق گاوزبان و امثال آن بکشند، جهت خفقان
وتقویت دل و ضعف معده ٔ حاره بسیار مفید است . (تحفه ٔ حکیم مؤمن ).
در قانون و شریعت
اسلام هیچ نوع خاکی خوردن آن جائز نیست مگر خاک گردآمده بر ضریح مقدس امام حسین علیه
السلام که از اندرون ضریح به دست آورند آنهم مشروط به آنکه مقدار تربت زیاده از وزن
دانه ای از باقلاء مصریه نباشد. بروایتی استعمال و خوردن گل ارمنی نیز مجاز است و این
تساهل برای آن است که ممکن است این نوع از خاک یک نوع تسکینی در پاره ای از مواقع در
بیماریها ایجاد کند. (دکری ج 2 ص 236). و رجوع به تذکره ٔ انطاکی ج 1 ص 239 و «گِل
» و انواع آن شود. دهخدا
////////////////
طین
مجموع گلها مبرد
و مجفف بود
طین حکمه
بپارسی گل حکمت خوانند
و صفت آن بسیار است و مؤلف گوید بهترین این نوع آنست که بگیرند گل زرد پاک چهره دنک
و بکوبند و بپزند و یکمن کاغذ و نیم من نمک در آب کنند و بدست بمالند تا حل شود بعد
از آن گل بر سر آن کنند و چهار یکی موی سر آدمی بمقراض چیده و چهاریکی سرگین اسب نیکو
پخته و نیک بمالند چندانکه بمالند بهتر شود بعد از آن عقده عقده کنند و بنهند تا خشک
شود و هر زمان که خواهند استعمال کنند بکوبند و به آب صافی خمیر کنند و بکار دارند
و نوعی دیگر صاحب منهاج آورده که یک جزو گل و یک جزو فحم کوفته و بیخته و یک جزو نمک
و یک جزو خطمی و موی چیده بسرشند و نیک نیک بمالند و مستعمل کنند
طین المختوم
گل سرخرنگ بود بغایت
نرم و از تل بحیره آورند و گویند در آن زمین هیچ نبات و حشیش نیست و سنگ نیز نبود و
قبری در آنجا نبود و آن گل مغره ملنیه و مغره یمانی و طین الکاهنین خوانند از بهر آنکه
زنی ساحره آن گل یافته است و صورت ارطامیس بر آن بود ایستاده دیسقوریدوس گوید گلی است
از جزیره لمنوس که بخون بز کوهی می‌سرشند و آن صورت بر آن می‌نهند خواتیم الملک و ختم
الملک از بهر آن گویند که صورت ارطمیس بر آن بود و اقوال بسیار در این گل بود و جالینوس
گوید نیکوترین این گل آن آب گرفته است که از وی بوی شبت آید خون را ببندد و چون در
دهان گیرند بر زبان بچسبد مؤلف گوید امتحان وی چنان کنند که اول بلب نهند اگر بچسبد
دیگر بر زبان نهند تا بیقین معلوم شود بغایت املس بود و براق و گویند آن زمین که گل
مختوم از وی بیاورند از زمین یونان بود و این زمان آب گرفته است شیخ الرئیس گوید طبیعت
وی معتدل بود در گرمی و سردی مانند مزاج آدمی لیکن خشک وی زیادت از تری بود و در وی
رطوبتی فضلی هست که ممتزج بود به یبوست و در وی خاصیتی عجیب بود در تقویت و تفریح دل
و تریاق مطلق بود و مقاومت با مجموع زهرها بکند و مؤلف گوید کودکی قریب دو مثقال دیک‌بردیک
که از سموم قتاله بود خورده بود در زمان قدری از طین مختوم با شیر مادر بخورد وی دادند
آغاز قی کرد مجموع برآمد بعد از آن قدری هم از این گل با شیر مادر بوی دادند دیگربار
قی کرد و یک‌دو مجلس طبیعت نیز مدد کرد از آن زهر کشنده بفرمان خدای عز و جل خلاص یافت
و بر مجموع ریشها که خون از وی روانه بود چون بر آن پاشند بسته گردد و حقنه کردن بدان
ذوسنطاریا را نافع بود و مقدار مأخوذ از وی تا دو درم و جهت گزندگی جانوران کشنده افعی
و سگ دیوانه با شراب بیاشامند یا با سرکه طلا کنند نافع بود و کسی که ذراریح خورده
باشد چون ارنب بحری و گل مختوم بیاشامند شفا یابد و در حال قی کند و دفع آن سم بکند
و حب الفار نیز همین عمل کند در دفع سموم و شیخ الرئیس گوید اسحق کرده بیاشامند و نقیع
وی در زمان دفع وبا بکند و اسحق گوید مضر بود به شش و مصلح وی گلاب بود و بدل آن در
قبض خون گل رومی بود یا گل ارمنی که بخون بز کوهی سرشته باشند و گویند بدل آن مغره
است در قبض لیکن در تریاق بدل وی نیست
______________________________
ابو ریحان در صیدنه
می‌نویسد: گل مختوم را بلغت رومی لمنسفراجس گویند و فارسیان او را گل نبشته گویند و
طین بحیرة نیز گویند و جالینوس او را مغره لمنیه گوید و در قبرس آن را کهان نامند
فرانسه TERRE SIGILLEE* انگلیسیSEALEA EARTH
*Terra sigillata is a term with at least three distinct
meanings: as a description of medieval medicinal earth; in archaeology, as a
general term for some of the fine red Ancient Roman pottery with
glossy surface slipsmade in
specific areas of the Roman Empire; and more recently, as a description of a
contemporary studio pottery technique
supposedly inspired by ancient pottery. Usually roughly translated as 'sealed
earth', the meaning of 'terra sigillata' is 'clay bearing little images'
(Latin sigilla), not 'clay with a sealed (impervious) surface'. The
archaeological term is applied, however, to plain-surfaced pots as well as
those decorated with figures in relief.
Terra sigillata as an
archaeological term refers chiefly to a specific type of plain and decorated
tableware made in Italy and in Gaul (France and the Rhineland) during the Roman
Empire. These vessels have glossy surface slips ranging from a soft lustre to a
brilliant glaze-like shine, in a characteristic colour range from pale orange
to bright red; they were produced in standard shapes and sizes and were
manufactured on an industrial scale and widely exported. The sigillata
industries grew up in areas where there were existing traditions of pottery
manufacture, and where the clay deposits proved suitable. The products of the
Italian workshops are also known as Aretine ware from Arezzo and have been collected and
admired since the Renaissance. The wares made in the Gaulish factories
are often referred to by English-speaking archaeologists as samian ware.
Closely related pottery fabrics made in the North African and Eastern provinces
of the Roman Empire are not usually referred to as terra sigillata, but by more
specific names, e.g.African red slip
wares. All these types of pottery are significant for
archaeologists: they can often be closely dated, and their distribution casts
light on aspects of the ancient Roman economy.
Modern "Terra
sig" should be clearly distinguished from the close reproductions of Roman
wares made by some potters deliberately recreating and using the Roman methods.[1] The finish called 'terra sigillata' by studio potters can
be made from most clay, mixed as a very thin liquid slip and
settled to separate out only the finest particles to be used as terra
sigillata. When applied to unfired clay surfaces, "terra sig" can be
polished with a soft cloth or brush to achieve a shine ranging from a smooth
silky lustre to a high gloss. The surface of ancient terra sigillata vessels
did not require this burnishing or
polishing. Burnishing was a technique used on some wares in the Roman period,
but terra sigillata was not one of them. The polished surface can only be
retained if fired within the low-fire range and will lose its shine if fired
higher, but can still display an appealing silky quality.
Contents
·
6Notes
The oldest use for the
term terra sigillata was for a medicinal clay from the island of Lemnos. The latter was called
"sealed" because cakes of it were pressed together and stamped with
the head of Artemis. Later, it bore the seal of the Ottoman sultan. This soil's particular
mineralic content was such that, in the Renaissance, it was seen as a proof against
poisoning, as well as a general cure for any bodily impurities, and it was
highly prized as a medicine and medicinal component. In 1588 English
ethnographer and translator Thomas Harriot wrote in A Briefe
and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginiathat Algonquians of the mid–Atlantic region
treated various sores and wounds with wapeih, a kind of terra
sigillata that English surgeons and physicians found to be of the same kind
"of vertue and more effectuall" than the contemporary European sort.[2]
A
decorated Arretine vase (Form Dragendorff 11) found at Neuss, Germany
In archaeological
usage, the term terra sigillata without further qualification
normally denotes the Arretine ware of Italy, made at Arezzo, and Gaulish samian ware manufactured
first in South Gaul, particularly at La Graufesenque, near Millau, and later at Lezoux and adjacent sites near Clermont-Ferrand, and at east Gaulish sites
such as Trier, Sinzig and Rheinzabern. These high-quality tablewares
were particularly popular and widespread in the Western Roman Empire from about
50 BC to the early 3rd century AD.[3][4] Definitions of 'TS' have grown up from the earliest days
of antiquarian studies, and are far from consistent; one survey of Classical
art says:
Terra
sigillata ... is a Latin
term used by modern scholars to designate a class of decorated red-gloss
pottery .... not all red-gloss ware was decorated, and hence the more inclusive
term 'Samian ware' is sometimes used to characterize all varieties of it.[5]
- whereas Anthony
King's definition, following the more usual practice amongst Roman pottery
specialists, makes no mention of decoration, but states that terra sigillata is
'alternatively known as samian ware'. However, 'samian ware' is normally used
only to refer to the sub-class of terra sigillata made in ancient Gaul. In
European languages other than English, terra sigillata, or a translation
(e.g. terre sigillée), is always used for both Italian and Gaulish
products.[6][7] Nomenclature has to be established at an early stage of
research into a subject, and antiquarians of the 18th and 19th centuries often
used terms that we would not choose today, but as long as their meaning is
clear and well-established, this does not matter, and detailed study of the
history of the terminology is really a side-issue that is of academic interest
only. Scholars writing in English now often use "red gloss wares" or
"red slip wares", both to avoid these issues of definition,[8] and also because many other wares of the Roman period
share aspects of technique with the traditional sigillata fabrics.
Profile
drawing of form Dragendorff 29. 1st century AD.
Italian and Gaulish TS
vessels were made in standardised shapes constituting services of matching
dishes, bowls and serving vessels. These changed and evolved over time, and
have been very minutely classified; the first major scheme, by the German
classical archaeologist Hans Dragendorff (1895), is still in use
(as e.g. "Dr.29"),[9] and there have been many others, such as the
classifications of Déchelette, Knorr, Hermet, Walters, Curle, Loeschcke,
Ritterling, Hermet and Ludowici, and more recently, the Conspectus of
Arretine forms and Hayes's type-series of African Red Slip and Eastern
sigillatas.[10] These reference sometimes make it possible to date the
manufacture of a broken decorated sherd to within 20 years or less.
Most of the forms that
were decorated with figures in low relief were thrown in pottery moulds, the
inner surfaces of which had been decorated using fired-clay stamps or punches
(usually referred to as poinçons) and some free-hand work using
a stylus. The mould was therefore decorated on
its interior surface with a full decorative design of impressed, intaglio
(hollowed) motifs that would appear in low relief on any bowl formed in it. As
the bowl dried, the shrinkage was sufficient for it to be withdrawn from the
mould, in order to carry out any finishing work, which might include the
addition of foot-rings, the shaping and finishing of rims, and in all cases the
application of the slip. Barbotine andappliqué ('sprigged') techniques were
sometimes used to decorate vessels of closed forms.[11] Study of the characteristic decorative motifs,
combined in some cases with name-stamps of workshops incorporated into the
decoration, and also sometimes with the cursive signatures of mouldmakers, makes
it possible to build up a very detailed knowledge of the industry. Careful
observation of form and fabric is therefore usually enough for an archaeologist
experienced in the study of sigillata to date and identify a broken sherd:
a potter's stamp or moulded decoration provides even more precise evidence. The
classic guide by Oswald and Pryce, published in 1920 [12] set out many of the principles, but the literature on the
subject goes back into the 19th century, and is now extremely voluminous,
including many monographs on specific regions, as well as excavation reports on
important sites that have produced significant assemblages of sigillata wares,
and articles in learned journals, some of which are dedicated to Roman pottery
studies.[13][14]
The
remains of the grand four ("big kiln")
at La Graufesenque
The motifs and designs
on the relief-decorated wares echo the general
traditions of Graeco-Roman decorative arts, with depictions of deities,
references to myths and legends, and popular themes such as hunting and erotic
scenes. Individual figure-types, like the vessel-shapes, have been classified,
and in many cases they may be linked with specific potters or workshops. Some
of the decoration relates to contemporary architectural ornament, with egg-and-tongue (ovolo) mouldings, acanthus and
vine scrolls and the like. While the
decoration of Arretine ware is often highly naturalistic in style, and is
closely comparable with silver tableware of the same period, the designs on the
Gaulish products, made by provincial artisans adopting Classical subjects, are
intriguing for their expression of 'romanisation',
the fusion of Classical and native cultural and artistic traditions.
Many of the Gaulish
manufacturing sites have been extensively excavated and studied. At La Graufesenquein southern Gaul, documentary
evidence in the form of lists or tallies apparently fired with single
kiln-loads, giving potters' names and numbers of pots have long been known, and
they suggest very large loads of 25,000–30,000 vessels. Though not all the kilns
at this, or other, manufacturing sites were so large, the excavation of
the grand four (big kiln) at La Graufesenque, which was in use
in the late 1st and early 2nd century, confirms the scale of the industry. It
is a rectangular stone-built structure measuring 11.3 m. by 6.8 m. externally,
with an original height estimated at 7 metres. With up to nine 'storeys' within
(dismantled after each firing), formed of tile floors and vertical columns in
the form of clay pipes or tubes, which also served to conduct the heat, it has
been estimated that it was capable of firing 30,000–40,000 vessels at a time,
at a temperature of around 1000 °C.[15]
A 2005 work has shown
that the slip is a matrix of mainly silicon and aluminium oxides, within which
are suspended sub-microscopic crystals of haematite and corundum. The matrix
itself does not contain any metallic ions, the haematite is substituted in
aluminium and titanium while the corundum is substituted in iron. The two
crystal populations are homogenously dispersed within the matrix. The colour of
haematite depends on the crystal size. Large crystals of this mineral are black
but as the size decreases to sub-micron the colour shifts to red. The fraction
of aluminium has a similar effect. It was formerly thought that the difference
between 'red' and 'black' samian was due to the presence (black) or absence
(red) of reducing gases from the kiln and that the construction of the kiln was
so arranged as to prevent the reducing gases from the fuel from coming into
contact with the pottery. The presence of iron oxides in the clay/slip was
thought to be reflected in the colour according to the oxidation state of the
iron (Fe[III] for the red and Fe[II] for the black, the latter produced by the
reducing gases coming into contact with the pottery during firing). It now
appears as a result of this recent work that this is not the case and that the
colour of the glossy slip is in fact due to no more than the crystal size of
the minerals dispersed within the matrix glass.[16]
Arretine ware, in
spite of its very distinctive appearance, was an integral part of the wider
picture of fine ceramic tablewares in the Graeco-Roman world of the Hellenistic and early Roman period. That
picture must itself be seen in relation to the luxury tablewares made of
silver. Centuries before Italian terra sigillata was made, Attic painted vases,
and later their regional variants made in Italy, involved the preparation of a
very fine clay body covered with a slip that fired to a glossy surface without
the need for any polishing or burnishing. Greek painted wares also involved the
precise understanding and control of firing conditions to achieve the contrasts
of black and red.[17]
A
Campanian ware phiale(libation bowl) with mould-made relief
decoration. c. 300 BC.
A
black Megarian bowl, 2nd century BC
Glossy-slipped black
pottery made in Etruria and Campania continued this technological
tradition, though painted decoration gave way to simpler stamped motifs and in
some cases, to applied motifs moulded in relief.[18] The tradition of decorating entire vessels in low relief
was also well established in Greece and Asia Minor by the time the Arretine
industry began to expand in the middle of the 1st century BC, and examples were
imported into Italy. Relief-decorated cups, some in lead-glazed wares, were
produced at several eastern centres, and undoubtedly played a part in the
technical and stylistic evolution of decorated Arretine, but Megarian bowls,
made chiefly in Greece and Asia Minor, are usually seen as the most direct
inspiration.[19] These are small, hemispherical bowls without foot-rings,
and their decoration is frequently very reminiscent of contemporary silver
bowls, with formalised, radiating patterns of leaves and flowers.[20] The crisp and precisely profiled forms of the plain dishes
and cups were also part of a natural evolution of taste and fashion in the
Mediterranean world of the 1st century BC.
An
Arretine stamp used for impressing a mould
Arretine ware began to
be manufactured at and near Arezzo (Tuscany) a
little before the middle of the 1st century BC. The industry expanded rapidly
in a period when Roman political and military influence was spreading far
beyond Italy: for the inhabitants of the first provinces of the Roman Empire in
the reign of the Emperor Augustus (reg. 27 BC – AD 14), this
tableware, with its precise forms, shiny surface, and, on the decorated
vessels, its visual introduction to Classical art and mythology, must have
deeply impressed some inhabitants of the new northern provinces of the Empire.
Certainly it epitomised certain aspects of Roman taste and technical expertise.
Pottery industries in the areas we now call north-east France and Belgium quickly began to copy the shapes
of plain Arretine dishes and cups in the wares now known as Gallo-Belgic,[21] and in South and Central Gaul, it was not long before
local potters also began to emulate the mould-made decoration and the glossy
red slip itself.
The most recognisable
decorated Arretine form is Dragendorff 11, a large, deep goblet on a high
pedestal base, closely resembling some silver table vessels of the same period,
such as the Warren Cup. The iconography, too, tended to match the subjects
and styles seen on silver plate, namely mythological and genre scenes,
including erotic subjects, and small decorative details of swags, leafy wreaths
and ovolo (egg-and-tongue)
borders that may be compared with elements of Augustan architectural ornament.
The deep form of the Dr.11 allowed the poinçons (stamps) used
making the moulds of human and animal figures to be fairly large, often about
5–6 cm high, and the modelling is frequently very accomplished indeed,
attracting the interest of modern art-historians as well as archaeologists.
Major workshops, such as those of M.Perennius Tigranus, P. Cornelius and Cn.
Ateius, stamped their products, and the names of the factory-owners and of the
workers within the factories, which often appear on completed bowls and on
plain wares, have been extensively studied, as have the forms of the vessels,
and the details of their dating and distribution.[22]
Mould
for an Arretine Dr.11, manufactured in the workshop of P. Cornelius
Italian sigillata was
not made only at or near Arezzo itself: some of the important Arezzo businesses
had branch factories in Pisa, and by the beginning of
the 1st century AD, the Ateius and Rasinius workshops had set up branch
factories at La Muette, near Lyon in Central Gaul.[23] Nor were the classic Arretine wares of the Augustan period
the only forms of terra sigillata made in Italy: later sigillata industries in
the Po Valley and elsewhere continued the
tradition. The history of sigillata manufacture in Italy is succinctly
summarised in Hayes 1997, pages 41–52.
In the Middle Ages,
examples of the ware that were serendipitously discovered in digging
foundations in Arezzo drew admiring attention as early as the 13th century,
when Restoro d'Arezzo's
massive encyclopedia included a chapter praising the refined Roman ware
discovered in his native city, "what is perhaps the first account of an
aspect of ancient art to be written since classical times".[24] The chronicler Giovanni Villani also mentioned the ware.[25]
The first published
study of Arretine ware was that of Fabroni in 1841,[26] and by the late 19th and early 20th centuries, German
scholars in particular had made great advances in systematically studying and
understanding both Arretine ware and the Gaulish samian that occurred on Roman
military sites being excavated in Germany. Dragendorff's classification was
expanded by other scholars, including S.Loeschcke in his study of the Italian
sigillata excavated at the early Roman site of Haltern.[27] Research on Arretine ware has continued very actively
throughout the 20th century and into the 21st, for example with the publication
and revision of Oxé-Comfort and the Conspectus of forms,
bringing earlier work on stamps and shapes up to date.[28] As with all ancient pottery studies, each generation asks
new questions and applies new techniques (such as analysis of clays) in the
attempt to find the answers.
South
Gaulish Dragendorff 29, late 1st century AD
Sigillata vessels,
both plain and decorated, were manufactured at several centres in southern
France, including Bram, Montans, La Graufesenque, Le Rozier and Banassac,[29] from the late 1st century BC: of these, La Graufesenque,
near Millau, was the principal producer and exporter. Although the
establishment of sigillata potteries in Gaul may well have arisen initially to
meet local demand and to undercut the prices of imported Italian goods, they
became enormously successful in their own right, and by the later 1st century
AD, South Gaulish samian was being exported not only to other provinces in the
north-west of the Empire, but also to Italy and other regions of the
Mediterranean, North Africa and even the eastern Empire. One of the finds in
the ruins of Pompeii, destroyed by the
eruption of Vesuvius in August
AD 79, was a consignment of South Gaulish sigillata, still in its packing
crate;[30] like all finds from the Vesuvian sites, this hoard of
pottery is invaluable as dating evidence.
South
Gaulish plain forms, showing standardisation of size
South Gaulish samian
typically has a redder slip and deeper pink fabric than Italian sigillata. The
best slips, vivid red and of an almost mirror-like brilliance, were achieved
during the Claudian and
early Neronian periods (Claudius, reg.
AD 41–54; Nero, reg. AD 54–68). At the same period, some workshops
experimented briefly with a marbled red-and-yellow slip, a variant that never
became generally popular.[31] Early production of plain forms in South Gaul initially
followed the Italian models closely, and even the characteristic Arretine
decorated form, Dragendorff 11, was made. But many new shapes quickly evolved,
and by the second half of the 1st century AD, when Italian sigillata was no
longer influential, South Gaulish samian had created its own characteristic
repertoire of forms. The two principal decorated forms were Dragendorff 30, a
deep, cylindrical bowl, and Dragendorff 29, a carinated ('keeled') shallow bowl
with a marked angle, emphasised by a moulding, mid-way down the profile. The footring
is low, and potters' stamps are usually bowl-maker's marks placed in the
interior base, so that vessels made from the same, or parallel, moulds may bear
different names. The rim of the 29, small and upright in early examples of the
form, but much deeper and more everted by the 70s of the 1st century, is
finished with rouletted decoration,[32] and the relief-decorated surfaces necessarily fall into
two narrow zones. These were usually decorated with floral and foliate designs
of wreaths and scrolls at first: the Dr.29 resting on its rim illustrated in
the lead section of this article is an early example, less angular than the
developed form of the 60s and 70s, with decoration consisting of simple, very
elegant leaf-scrolls. Small human and animal figures, and more complex designs
set out in separate panels, became more popular by the 70s of the 1st century.
Larger human and animal figures could be used on the Dr.30 vessels, but while
many of these have great charm, South Gaulish craftsmen never achieved, and
perhaps never aspired to, the Classical naturalism of some of their Italian
counterparts.
South
Gaulish bowl, Dr.37, from the late 1st century AD, with a stamp of the potter Mercato
in the decoration
In the last two
decades of the 1st century, the Dragendorff 37, a deep, rounded vessel with a
plain upright rim, overtook the 29 in popularity. This simple shape remained
the standard Gaulish samian relief-decorated form, from all Gaulish
manufacturing regions, for more than a century. Small relief-decorated beakers such
as forms Déchelette 67 and Knorr 78 were also made in South Gaul, as were
occasional 'one-off' or very ambitious mould-made vessels, such as large
thin-walled flagons and flasks.[33] But the mass of South Gaulish samian found on Roman sites
of the 1st century AD consists of plain dishes, bowls and cups, especially
Dr.18 (a shallow dish) and Dr.27 (a little cup with a distinctive double curve
to the profile), many of which bear potters' name-stamps, and the large
decorated forms 29, 30 and 37.
A local industry
inspired by Arretine and South Gaulish imports grew up in the Iberian provinces in the 1st century
AD. Terra sigillata hispanica developed its own distinctive
forms and designs, and continued in production into the late Roman period, the
4th and 5th centuries AD. It was not exported to other regions.
Central
Gaulish Dr.30, stamped by Divixtus
The principal Central
Gaulish samian potteries were situated at Lezoux and Les Martres-de-Veyre,
not far fromClermont-Ferrand in
the Auvergne.
Production had already begun at Lezoux in the Augustan period (Augustus,reg. 27
BC–AD 14), but it was not until the reign of Trajan (AD 98–117), and the beginning of
a decline in the South Gaulish export trade, that Central Gaulish samian ware
became important outside its own region. Though it never achieved the extensive
geographical distribution of the South Gaulish factories, in the provinces of
Gaul andBritain, it was by
far the most common type of fine tableware, plain and decorated, in use during
the 2nd century AD. The quality of the ware and the slip is usually excellent,
and some of the products of Les Martres-de-Veyre, in particular, are
outstanding, with a lustrous slip and a very hard, dense body.[34] The surface colour tends towards a more orange-red hue
than the typical South Gaulish slips.
Vessel-forms that had
been made in South Gaul continued to be produced, though as the decades passed,
they evolved and changed with the normal shifts of fashion, and some new shapes
were created, such as the plain bowl with a horizontal flange below the rim,
Dr.38. Mortaria, food-preparation bowls with a
gritted interior surface, were also made in Central Gaulish samian fabric in
the second half of the 2nd century (Dr.45). There is a small sub-class of
Central Gaulish samian ware with a glossy black slip, though the dividing line
between black terra sigillata and other fine black-gloss wares, which were also
manufactured in the area, is sometimes hazy. When a vessel is a classic samian
form and decorated in relief in the style of a known samian potter, but
finished with black slip rather than a red one, it may be classed as black
samian.
Central
Gaulish samian jar with 'cut-glass' decoration
Though the Central
Gaulish forms continued and built upon the South Gaulish traditions, the
decoration of the principal decorated forms, Dr.30 and Dr.37, was distinctive.[35] New human and animal figure-types appeared, generally
modelled with greater realism and sophistication than those of La Graufesenque
and other South Gaulish centres. Figure-types and decorative details have been
classified, and can often be linked to specific workshops[36]Lezoux wares also included vases decorated with barbotine relief, with appliqué motifs,
and a class usually referred to as 'cut-glass' decoration, with geometric
patterns cut into the surface of the vessel before slipping and firing. Two
standard 'plain' types made in considerable numbers in Central Gaul also
included barbotine decoration, Dr.35 and 36, a matching cup and dish with a
curved horizontal rim embellished with a stylised scroll of leaves in relief.
During the second half
of the 2nd century, some Lezoux workshops making relief-decorated bowls, above
all that of Cinnamus, dominated the market with their large production.[37] The wares of Cinnamus, Paternus, Divixtus, Doeccus, Advocisus,
Albucius and some others often included large, easily legible name-stamps
incorporated into the decoration, clearly acting as brand-names or
advertisements.[38] Though these vessels were very competently made, they are
heavy and somewhat coarse in form and finish compared with earlier Gaulish
samian ware.
From the end of the
2nd century, the export of sigillata from Central Gaul rapidly, perhaps even
abruptly, ceased. Pottery production continued, but in the 3rd century, it
reverted to being a local industry.
Rheinzabern
barbotine-decorated vase, form Ludowici VMe
There were numerous
potteries manufacturing terra sigillata in East Gaul, which included Alsace, the Saarland, and theRhine and Mosel regions, but while the samian
pottery from Luxeuil, La Madeleine,
Chémery-Faulquemont, Lavoye,Remagen, Sinzig, Blickweiler and other sites is of
interest and importance mainly to specialists, two sources stand out because
their wares are often found outside their own immediate areas, namely Rheinzabern, near Speyer, and Trier.[39]
The Trier potteries
evidently began to make samian vessels around the beginning of the 2nd century
AD, and were still active until the middle of the 3rd century. The styles and
the potters have been divided by scholars into two main phases, Werkstatten I
and II.[40] Some of the later mould-made Dr.37 bowls are of very poor
quality, with crude decoration and careless finishing.
The Rheinzabern kilns
and their products have been studied since Wilhelm Ludowici (1855–1929) began
to excavate there in 1901, and to publish his results in a series of detailed
reports.[41] Rheinzabern produced both decorated and plain forms for
around a century from the middle of the 2nd century. Some of the Dr.37 bowls,
for example those with the workshop stamp of Ianus, bear comparison with
Central Gaulish products of the same date: others are less successful. But the
real strength of the Rheinzabern industry lay in its extensive production of
good-quality samian cups, beakers, flagons and vases, many imaginatively
decorated with barbotine designs or in the 'cut-glass' incised technique.
Ludowici created his own type-series, which sometimes overlaps with those of
other sigillata specialists. Ludowici's types use combinations of upper- and
lower-case letters rather than simple numbers, the first letter referring to
the general shape, such as 'T' for Teller (dish).
In general, the
products of the East Gaulish industries moved away from the early imperial
Mediterranean tradition of intricately profiled dishes and cups, and ornamented
bowls made in moulds, and converged with the later Roman local traditions of
pottery-making in the northern provinces, using free-thrown, rounded forms and
creating relief designs with freehand slip-trailing. Fashions in fine
tablewares were changing. Some East Gaulish producers made bowls and cups
decorated only with rouletted or stamped decoration, and in the 3rd and 4th
centuries, Argonne ware,
decorated with all-over patterns of small stamps, was made in the area east of
Rheims and quite widely traded.[42] Argonne ware was essentially still a type of sigillata,
and the most characteristic form is a small, sturdy Dr.37 bowl. Small,
localised attempts to make conventional relief-decorated samian ware included a
brief and unsuccessful venture atColchester in Britain, apparently
initiated by potters from the East Gaulish factories at Sinzig, a centre that
was itself an offshoot of the Trier workshops.[43]
In the eastern
provinces of the Roman Empire, there had been several industries making fine
red tablewares with smooth, glossy-slipped surfaces since about the middle of
the 2nd century BC, well before the rise of the Italian sigillata workshops. By
the 1st century BC, their forms often paralleled Arretine plain-ware shapes quite
closely. There were evidently centres of production in Syria; in
western Turkey, exported through Ephesos; Pergamon; Çandarlı, near Pergamon; and on Cyprus, but archaeologists often refer
to eastern sigillata A from
Northern Syria, eastern sigillata B from Tralles in Asia Minor,eastern sigillata C from
ancient Pitane,
and eastern sigillata D (or
Cypriot sigillata) from Cyprus, as there is still much to be learnt about this
material. While eastern sigillata C is known to come from Çandarli
(ancient Pitane), there
were likely other workshops in the wider region of Pergamon.[44] By the early 2nd century AD, when Gaulish samian was
completely dominating the markets in the Northern provinces, the eastern
sigillatas were themselves beginning to be displaced by the rising importance
of African Red Slip wares in the Mediterranean and the Eastern Empire. In the
fourth century AD, Phocaean red slipappears as a successor to
Eastern sigillata C.
In the 1980s two
primary groups of Eastern Terra Sigillata in the Eastern Mediterranean basin
were distinguished as ETS-I and ETS-II based on their chemical fingerprints as
shown by analysis by instrumental neutron
activation analysis (INAA). ETS-I originated in Eastern Cyprus, whereas the ETS-II was probably made
in Pamphylia, at Perge, Aspendos and Side. [45] However this classification has been criticized, and is
not universally accepted. A potter's quarter at Sagalassos inland from the southern
Turkish coast has been excavated since it was discovered in 1987, and its wares
traced to many sites in the region. It was active from around 25 to 550 AD.[46]
Late
Roman African Red Slip dish, 4th century AD
African red slip ware (ARS)
was the final development of terra sigillata.[47] While the products of the Italian and Gaulish red-gloss
industries flourished and were exported from their places of manufacture for at
most a century or two each, ARS production continued for more than 500 years.
The centres of production were in the Roman provinces of Africa,Byzacena and Numidia; that is, modern Tunisia and part of eastern Algeria. From about the 4th century AD,
competent copies of the fabric and forms were also made in several other
regions, including Asia Minor, the
eastern Mediterranean and Egypt. Over the long period of production, there was
obviously much change and evolution in both forms and fabrics. Both Italian and
Gaulish plain forms influenced ARS in the 1st and 2nd centuries (for example,
Hayes Form 2, the cup or dish with an outcurved rim decorated with barbotine
leaves, is a direct copy of the samian forms Dr.35 and 36, made in South and
Central Gaul),[48] but over time a distinctive ARS repertoire developed.
African
Red Slip flagons and vases, 2nd-4th century AD
There was a wide range
of dishes and bowls, many with rouletted or stamped decoration, and closed
forms such as tall ovoid flagons with appliqué ornament (Hayes Form 171). The
ambitious large rectangular dishes with relief decoration in the centre and on
the wide rims (Hayes Form 56), were clearly inspired by decorated silver
platters of the 4th century, which were made in rectangular and polygonal
shapes as well as in the traditional circular form. Decorative motifs reflected
not only the Graeco-Roman traditions of the Mediterranean, but eventually the
rise of Christianity as well: there is a great variety of monogram crosses and
plain crosses amongst the stamps.
South Gaulish cup, form Hofheim 8, with a marbled slip
South Gaulish cup of form Dragendorff 27
Flanged bowl, Dr.38, with profile drawing
Gaulish Dr.36, with barbotine decoration on the rim
Profile drawing of form Dragendorff 11. 1st century BC–early 1st
century AD
Profile drawing of form Dragendorff 37. 1st–3rd century AD
Profile drawing of form Dragendorff 30. 1st-2nd century AD
In sharp contrast to
the archaeological usage, in which the term terra sigillata refers
to a whole class of pottery, in contemporary ceramic art, 'terra sigillata' describes only
a watery refined slip used to facilitate the burnishing of raw clay surfaces and used
to promote carbon smoke effects, in both primitive low temperature firing
techniques and unglazed alternative western-style Raku firing techniques. Terra sigillata
is also used as a brushable decorative colourant medium in higher
temperature glazed ceramic
techniques.
In 1906 the German
potter Karl Fischer re-invented the method of making terra
sigillata of Roman quality and obtained patent protection for this procedure at
the Kaiserliche
Patentamt in Berlin.[49]
Modern terra sigillata
is made by adding a deflocculant such
as sodium silicate to
a watery clay/water slip mixture and then allowing the clay particles
to separate into layers by weight. For undisturbed deflocculated slip settling
in a transparent container, these layers are usually visible within 24 hours.
Siphoning off the topmost layers of slip, which contain the smallest and
lightest clay particles, produces terra sigillata. The remaining heavier
settled layers of deflocculated clay slip are discarded.
Terra sigillata is
usually brushed or sprayed in thin layers onto dry or almost dry unfired ware.
The ware is then quickly burnished with a soft cloth before the water in the
terra sigillata soaks into the porous body. The burnished ware is allowed to
dry again to remove the added moisture and biscuit fired, often fired to a lower
than normal bisque temperature of approximately 900 °C. Higher firing temperatures
tend to remove the burnished effect in the clay surface.
Since the 18th century
Samian ware pots have been found in sufficient numbers in the sea near
Whitstable and Herne Bay that local people used them for cooking.[50][51]
|
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has media related to Terra
sigillata.
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·
Jump up^ Paul Roberts, 'Mass-production of Roman Finewares', in Ian
Freestone & David Gaimster, Pottery in the Making: World Ceramic
Traditions, London 1997, pp. 188–193
·
Jump up^ The meaning and etymology of 'samian ware' is a somewhat
complex matter, fully addressed in King 1980. There is ancient authority for
the use of samia vasa to describe pottery with a polished
surface in literary usage (Pliny, Nat. Hist. 35, 160), and the
verb samiare, 'to polish' is probably connected. However, it would
be unwise to exclude all possible historical associations with the island
of Samos, though of course the pottery known as
samian ware to present-day archaeologists has nothing to do with that region.
The modern parallel of the English term 'china' may be an apt one: 'china'
refers to a class of ceramic that no longer has any direct connection with the
country, China, but it was originally developed as part of the European
attempts to imitate imported Chinese porcelain in the 18th century.
The parallel with 'china' is the reason why the late Professor Eric Birley
favoured the use of a lower-case initial for 'samian'. (Birley pers.comm,
1960s, and see also Stanfield and Simpson 1958, p.xxxi, footnote 1).
·
Jump up^ H. Dragendorff, 'Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der
griechischen und römischen Keramik', Bonner Jahrbücher 96
(1895).
·
Jump up^ Oswald & Pryce 1920 covers the main typologies of the
early 20th century. Ettlinger 1990 is the current reference system for
Arretine, and Hayes 1972 and 1980 for the late Roman material.
·
Jump up^ Closed forms: shapes such as vases and flagons/jugs that
cannot be made in a single mould because they have a swelling profile that
tapers inwards from the point of greatest diameter. Some large flagons were made at La Graufesenque by
making the lower and upper bowl-shaped portions in moulds, and then joining
these and adding the neck. Obviously the open forms, namely bowls that could be
formed in, and extracted from, a single mould, were quicker and simpler to
make.
·
Jump up^ The site reports on the German forts at Haltern and Hofheim in the early 20th century
included form-classifications which are still in use for forms that were absent
from Dragendorff's original list: Loeschcke 1909; Ritterling 1913
·
Jump up^ Webster 1996, pp. 9–12 provides a useful summary. For a
report on thegrand four, see Vernhet 1981.
·
Jump up^ Roberto Weiss, The Renaissance Discovery of
Classical Antiquity (Oxford: Blackwell) 1973:13 and note.
·
Jump up^ Atkinson, D., 'A hoard of samian ware from Pompeii', Journal
of Roman Studies 4 (1914), pp. 26–64
·
Jump up^ 'Rouletted' decoration: this is a regular, notched surface
texture, created by using a tool with a toothed wheel (roulette) to impress
the pattern on the bowl before the clay was hard. It is also possible that it
was sometimes made by holding a blade-like tool against the vessel as it turned
on the wheel, allowing the tool to judder against the surface of the clay.
·
Jump up^ Many of the Central Gaulish types were first drawn and
classified in Déchelette 1904. Oswald's classification (Oswald 1936–7) is much
fuller, covering South, Central and East Gaulish types, but is marred by the
poor quality of the drawings.
·
Jump up^ The summary in Hayes 1997, pages 52–59 illustrates the
main forms and describes the characteristics of wares.
·
Jump up^ J. Gunneweg, 1980 Ph.D.Thesis, Hebrew University; Gunneweg,
Perlman and Yellin, 1983, The Provenience, Typology and Chronology of
Eastern Terra Sigillata of the eastern Mediterranean, QEDEM 17, Jerusalem,
Ahva Press
·
Jump up^ Poblome, Jernen, "The Ecology of Sagalassos
(Southwest Turkey) Red Slip Ware", in Archaeological and
historical aspects of West-European societies: album amicorum André Van
Doorselaer, Issue 8 of Acta archaeologica Lovaniensia: Monographiae,
1996, Ed. Marc Lodewijckx, Leuven University Press, ISSN 0776-2984, ISBN 9061867223, 9789061867227, google books
·
Jump up^ Hayes 1972 and Hayes 1980 are the standard reference works:
Hayes 1997, pp. 59–64 provides a succinct summary.
·
Jump up^ Patent No. 206 395, Class 80b, Group 23; according to:
Heinl, Rudolf; Die Kunsttöpferfamilie Fischer aus Sulzbach,
Sulzbach-Rosenberg 1984; Patents in the UK, France and the USA are reported in
the source, yet without patent-number
·
Jump up^ Christoph, Rummel. "Workshop Three: Research Partnerships".
The University of Nottingham Department of Archaeology. Retrieved 15
December2015.
1.
Boardman,
John ed., The Oxford History of Classical Art,
1993, OUP, ISBN 0-19-814386-9
2.
Brown, A.C. Catalogue of Italian Terra-Sigillata in the
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford 1968
3.
de la Bédoyère, G., Samian Ware, 1988, ISBN 0-85263-930-9
4.
Chenet, G., La céramique gallo-romaine d'Argonne du IVe
siècle et la terre sigillée décorée à la molette, Mâcon 1941
5.
Déchelette, Joseph, Les vases céramiques ornés de la
Gaule romaine, Paris 1904
6.
Dragendorff, Hans, 'Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der griechischen
und römischen Keramik', Bonner Jahrbücher 96 (1895)
7.
Dragendorff, H. & Watzinger, C., Arretinische
Reliefkeramik, Reutlingen 1948
8.
Ettlinger, Elisabeth, et al., Conspectus
formarum terrae sigillatae italico modo confectae, Frankfurt and Bonn,
1990.
9.
Fabroni, A., Storia degli antichi vasi fittili aretini,
Arezzo 1841
10. Fischer,
Charlotte, Die Terra-Sigillata-Manufaktur von Sinzig am Rhein,
Düsseldorf 1969
11. Garbsch, Jochen, Terra
Sigillata. Ein Weltreich im Spiegel seines Luxusgeschirrs, München 1982
12. Hartley, Brian &
Dickinson, Brenda, Names on terra sigillata: an index of makers' stamps
and signatures on Gallo-Roman terra sigillata (samian ware), Vol. 1 (A to AXO),
Vol.2 (B to CEROTCUS 2008 ISBN 978-1-905670-16-1 and ISBN 978-1-905670-17-8
13. Hayes, John W., Late
Roman Pottery, London 1972
14. Hayes, John W., Supplement
to Late Roman Pottery, London 1980
15. Hayes, John W., Handbook
of Mediterranean Roman Pottery, 1997, ISBN 0-7141-2216-5
16. Hermet, F., La
Graufesenque, Paris 1934
17. Hübener, W., 'Eine
Studie zur spätrömischen Rädchensigillata (Argonnensigillata)', Bonner
Jahrbücher 168 (1968), pp. 241–298
18. Huld-Zetsche,
Ingeborg, Trierer Reliefsigillata: Werkstatt I. Bonn 1972
19. Huld-Zetsche,
Ingeborg, Trierer Reliefsigillata: Werkstatt II. Bonn 1993
20. Hull, M.R., The
Roman potters' kilns of Colchester, Oxford 1963
21. Johns,
Catherine, Arretine and samian pottery, London 1971, revised edn.
1977 ISBN 0-7141-1361-1
22. King, Anthony, 'A
graffito from La Graufesenque and samia vasa ' Britannia 11
(1980), pp. 139–143
23. King, Anthony in:
Henig, Martin (ed), A Handbook of Roman Art, Phaidon, 1983, ISBN 0-7148-2214-0
24. Knorr, Robert, Töpfer
und Fabriken verzierter Terra-sigillata des ersten Jahrhunderts, Stuttgart
1919
25. Knorr, R., Terra-Sigillata-Gefässe
des ersten Jahrhunderts mit Töpfernamen, Stuttgart 1952
26. Loeschcke, S., Keramische
Funde in Haltern, Münster 1909
27. Ludowici, W., Katalog
V. Stempel-Namen und Bilder römischer Töpfer, Legions-Ziegel-Stempel, Formen
von Sigillata und anderen Gefäßen aus meinen Ausgrabungen in Rheinzabern
1901-1914. Jockgrim 1927
28. Noble, Joseph
V., The Techniques of Painted Attic Pottery, New York, 1965
29. Oswald, Felix, Index
of Potters' Stamps on Terra Sigillata, privately printed, 1931
30. Oswald, Felix, Index
of figure-types on Terra Sigillata, Liverpool, 1937-7
31. Oswald, Felix &
Pryce, T.D., An Introduction to the study of terra sigillata,
London 1920
32. Oxé, August &
Comfort, Howard, A Catalogue of the Signatures, Shapes and Chronology
of Italian Sigillata, Bonn 1968, revised by Philip Kenrick, Bonn
2000, ISBN 3-7749-3029-5.
33. Ricken, H. (ed), Die
Bilderschüsseln der römischen Töpfer von Rheinzabern (Tafelband),
Darmstadt 1942 (= Ludowici Kat.VI)
34. Ricken, H. &
Fischer, Charlotte,(eds.) Die Bilderschüsseln der römischen Töpfer von
Rheinzabern (Text), Bonn 1963 (= Ludowici Kat.VI)
35. Ritterling, E., 'Das
frührömische Lager bei Hofheim im Taunus', Annalen des Vereins für
Nassauische Altertumskunde, 40, Wiesbaden 1913
36. Roberts, Paul,
'Mass-production of Roman Finewares', in Ian Freestone & David
Gaimster, Pottery in the Making: World Ceramic Traditions, London
1997, pp. 188–193 ISBN 0-7141-1782-X
37. Sciau, P., Relaix, S.,
Kihn, Y. & Roucau, C., "The role of Microstructure and Composition in
the Brilliant Red Slip of Roman Terra Sigillata Pottery from Southern
Gaul", Mater.Res.Soc.Proc., Vol.852, 006.5.1-6, 2005
38. Stanfield, J., &
Simpson, Grace, Central Gaulish Potters, London 1958: revised
edition, Les potiers de la Gaule Centrale, Gonfaron 1990
39. Tyers, Paul, Roman
Pottery in Britain, London 1996 ISBN 0-7134-7412-2
40. Vernhet, A., Un
four de la Graufesenque (Aveyron): la cuisson des vases sigillés, Gallia 39
(1981), pp. 25–43
41. Webster, Peter, Roman
samian pottery in Britain, York 1996 ISBN 1-872414-56-7
*
طین ارمنی
گلی است سرخرنگ که
به تیرگی می‌زند و اسحق بن عمران گوید سرخی بود که بسیاهی زند و خوشبوی بود و مذاق
وی ترابی و بزبان چسبد طبیعت آن صاحب منهاج گوید سرد بود در اول و خشک بود در دویم
و گویند سرد و خشک بود در اول بهترین وی دردی است که در وی رمل نبود و چون سحق کنند
و بر زبان نهند بچسبد خون را ببندد و در طاعون خوردن و طلا کردن نافع بود و جراحتها
و قلاع را مفید بود و نزله که از سر بسینه ریزد و از آن ضیق النفس پیدا شود هیچ دوائی
به از این نبود و مقدار یک مثقال استعمال کنند و سل را مفید بود به سبب آنکه ریش وی
را خشک گرداند و جهت تب وبائی عظیم نافع بود و چنانچه گویند در زمین ارمن وقتی وبائی
بود که چند کس از آن بماندند و باقی تلف شدند و این چند کس را چون تحقیق کردند این
گل را همیشه خوردندی و این خاصیت از آنجا معلوم کردند و از بهر آنست که اطبا بشراب
و گلاب فرمایند و اگر تب بود بگلاب و آب سرد و شکستگی استخوان را بغایت مفید بود و
با اقاقیا طلا کردن پوست بواسیر از مقعد بیرون آورد و گویند مضر بود به سپرز و مصلح
آن گلاب بود و اسحق بن عمران گوید بدل وی طین حجازی بود که در آندلس معروف است به انجبار
و گویند بدل آن مغره است و بعضی گویند طین لاکی بود
طین رومی
مجفف و مقبض بود منع
ورمی که در جغون پیدا شود بکند چون به آب کاسنی طلا کنند و خون از چشم آید بازدارد
طین شاموس
گل شامی خوانند طین
الکواکب نیز گویند بهترین وی سفید بود که بر زبان بچسبد مانند دبق و چون در آب نهند
زود حل شود از بلاد یونان از جزیره قبرس خیزد و وی خشک‌تر از طین مختوم بود وی را غسل
حاجت نبود در بستن خون خاصیت وی مانند گل مختوم بود و بر ورم ثدیین طلا کردن نافع بود
در ابتدای نقرس نیز نیکو بود و در نفث دم و قرحه امعا پیش از آنکه متعفن شده باشد حقنه
کنند به ماء العسل و بعد از آن به آب لسان الحمل نیکو بود و اگر با سرکه ممزوج به آب
بیاشامند نافع بود جهت ورمهای گرم خاصه در آن عضو که رطوبت بیشتر بود و سست باشد مانند
ثدیین و بیضتین و مجموع گوشتها که سست باشد و معروف به عدد بود و قطع نفث دم بکند چون
با گلنار بری بخورند و چون با آب و روغن گل بمالند بر خصیه و ثدیین که ورمی گرم پیدا
شود در ایشان ساکن گرداند و قطع عرق بکند و چون با شیر بیاشامند گزندگی جانوران و ادویه
کشنده را بغایت مفید بود
طین قبرسی
گلی است سرخ گلگون
چون در دست بمالند سرخی وی در دست بماند چون بشکنند در اندرون وی رگها زرد بود و چون
بر زبان نهند بچسبد بغایت چنانچه بحیله باز توان کرد از زبان جهت مجموع جراحتها و ورمها
طلا کردن و جهت شکستگی اعضا و کوفتگی در زمان افتادن از جای بلند طلا کردن بغایت سود
دارد و مقدار مأخوذ از وی پنج درم بود از قول اسحق در سجح امعا و اسهال کبدی مفید بود
و نفث دم و قرحه امعا را آشامیدن و حقنه کردن مفید بود جهت دفع ادویه قتاله چون یک
درم از وی بیاشامند به آب سرد نافع بود و بدل آن گل مختوم بود
طین قیمولیا
حجر الرضام خوانند
و آن مانند رخام سفید بود و صفایح بر صفایح و براق و خوشبوی بود و گویند از وی بوی
کافور آید چون تازه بود دیسقوریدوس گوید آن دو نوع بود یکی سفید و دیگری فرفری و وی
دسیم بود جالینوس گوید قوت وی مرکب بود و در وی تبریدی و تحلیلی و از بهر آنست که چون
معمول کنند جزء محلل از وی بیرون شود طبیعت وی سرد و خشک بود و چون با قدری سرکه و
آب طلا کنند در سوختگی آتش نافع بود و آنچه خالص بود بسیار منفعت دارد و چون با سرکه
طلا کنند
بر ورمهای گرم و ورمهای
معده بغایت مفید بود و ریشهای بد را چون بسوزانند و غسل کنند و استعمال کنند زود با
حال صلاح آید و مؤلف گوید که در کوهستان یزد می‌باشد و زنان جهت جلای روی استعمال کنند
و روی را پاک می‌گرداند و ابن سمجون گوید بدل وی طین مصری بود و ابن حسان گوید اهل
بصره طین قیمولیا را طین الحر خوانند و اصناف آن بسیار بود ارمنی و آندلسی و سجلمانی
و بهترین وی ارمنی بود بعد از آن سجلمانی و دیگر آندلسی و وی بغایت سفید بود و وی صلب
بود و زود شکسته نگردد و در آب حل نشود تا زمانی نیک و چون حل شود در وی لزوجتی باشد
وافر و آندلسی دو نوع بود یکی سفید و یکی سیاه و آنچه سفید بود در معالجه استعمال کنند
و آنچه سیاه باشد بد بود و تصرف در آن نتوان کرد و محمد بن عبدون گوید طین الحر طین
علک خالص بود از سنگ و رمل مؤلف گوید گلی هست در نزدیک شیراز و بشیرازی گل کرنی خوانند
و در طبیعت نزدیک بوی بود و آن را نیز هم بدین اسم خوانند و گلی بغایت نیکو بود چون
بپوست بادام آن را دخان کنند از بهر خوردن لون را سرخ گرداند و طعم آن خوش بود و بریان
ناکرده کمتر خورند ابن الزهر گوید طین الحر سرد و خشک بود باعتدال نیکو بود جهت همه
جراحتها و اگر با سرکه بر گزندگی زنبور طلا کنند درد ساکن کند
______________________________
صاحب مخزن الادویه
می‌نویسد: آن را حجر رخام و بهندی کهتری متی نامند و در هند اطفال بر تختهای مشق می‌مالند
طین فارسی
بهترین وی سرخ بود
و بشیرازی گل سرشوی گویند طبیعت آن سرد و خشک بود درد شش را نافع بود چون دو مثقال
استعمال کنند و گویند مضر بود بمثانه و مصلح وی سرطانات بود
طین الصفر
طین الصنم خوانند
و آن از موضعی که در قسطنطنیه بود میان دو کوه ارند و رنگ آن زرد تیره‌رنگ بود در آنجا
رهیا نامند که برین گل مهری نهند و این طلسم کسی نداند خواند و هیچ‌کس بغیر ایشان نداند
و اگر کسی دیگر بسازد از طلسم بشناسند و آن عزیز بود طبیعت آن سرد و خشک بود بر ورمهای
گرم طلا کردن نافع بود و خوردن وی خون رفتن بازدارد و در بستن خون از همه گلها بقوت‌تر
و فاضل‌تر
طین الحر
در طین قیمولیا گفته
شد
طین بلد المصطلی
طین جزیره مصطلی را
طین حیا خوانند و حیوس نیز گویند و دیسقوریدوس گوید نیکوترین آن سفید خاکستری‌رنگ بود
و این گل رقیق بود و صفایح داشته باشد و پارهای مختلف بود چون در حمام خود را بدان
بشویند روی و مجموع اعضا را جلا دهد فاضل‌ترین ادویه بود جهت ریشها که از سوختگی بود
طلا کنند و بکار برند
طین اقریطس
ضعیف‌ترین طین‌ها
بود که یاد کرده شد و مضعف حواس بود لیکن ریشهای چشم را نافع بود چون زن آبستن از خود
بیاویزد بچه نگاهدارد و جلادهنده بغیر لذع بود
طین کرمی
بیونانی اسالیطس خوانند
و معنی آن اسم کرمی بود بعضی قومانیطس خوانند و این اسم مشتق از قومان بود و معنی آن
دوا بود و این گل از مدینه اسلوقیانالما و سوریا بود و نیکوترین این سیاهی بود مانند
فحم که از چوب صنوبر گیرند و آنچه خاکستری‌رنگ باشد بد بود و جالینوس گوید بدین سبب
وی را طین کرمی خوانند که در زمان بهار در ابتدای آنکه درخت
کرم ورق بیرون کند
این گل بر درخت آن مالند که ورق انگور می‌خورد و کرمی که درخت انگور می‌خورد چشمهای
آن تباه میشود و بکشد دیسقوریدوس گوید وی قابض و ملین و مبرد بود در کحلها استعمال
کنند موی مژه برویاند و جالینوس گوید جوهری نزدیک به حجری بود
طین مصری
ابلیز خوانند جالینوس
گوید مطحول و مستسقی بسیار دیدم در اسکندریه طلا کردند و نافع آمد بر ورمهای کهن و
دردهای مزمن و بواسیر طلا کردن بغایت مفید بود
طین نیشابوری
طین ماکول خوانند
و آن گلی بود خام و بریان‌کرده خورند و بدان تنقلی کنند و آن نوعی از طین الحر بود
و لون آن بغایت سفید بود مانند اسفیداج و بشیرازی گل سفید خوانند طبیعت وی سرد و خشک
بود و گویند گرم بود به سبب شوری که دارد قوت فم معده بود و غشی را نافع بود و منع
قی بکند و تری معده زایل گرداند و مقدار مستعمل از وی یک درم بود تا یک مثقال و زیادتر
از این مفسد مزاج بود و سده آورد و سنگ در گرده پیدا کند و انیسون و تخم کرفس ضرر وی
باز کم کند و صواب آن بود که ترک کنند از بهر آنکه زیان و فساد وی زیادت از صلاح بود
و آن رفتن از دهان و شهوت کلبیه را نافع بود و غثیان و کرب و هیضه را سودمند بود
طین الضم
طین اصفر بود و گفته
شد
طین خراسانی
طین نیشابوری بود
و گفته شد
طین الاحمر
مغره بود و در باب
میم گفته شود
اختیارات بدیعی، صص:
290-287
