شعیر، جو به هندی سج، به کردی وپنجابی و اردو جو

شعیر. [ ش َ ] (ع اِ) جو. (منتهی الارب ) (ناظم الاطباء) (از اقرب الموارد). نام غله ٔ معروف که به فارسی و هندی جو گویند، و گویند شعیر ازشَعْر بمعنی مو است زیرا که جو مو بر سر دارد و گندم ندارد یا آنکه کم دارد. (از غیاث اللغات ). جو، شعیرة یکی آن . (از مهذب الاسماء) (آنندراج).

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شعیر

نوعی از وی بی‌پوست بود و آن را سلت خوانند بپارسی جو برهنه گویند و فعل وی نزدیک بجو با پوست بود و نیکوترین وی آن بود که تازه و سفید و بزرگ بود و دانه وی فربه بود و طبیعت وی سرد و خشک بود در اول و گویند در دویم و خشکی وی بیشتر از باقلای مقشر بود باندک چیزی اما در همه خصلت‌ها مانند وی بود چون از بیرون استعمال کنند و چون پخته خورند فاضل‌تر از باقلا بود و در وی تحلیل و جلا بود و غذای وی کمتر از غذای گندم بود و بر کلف گرم کرده طلا کنند سود دهد و بر جرب ریش‌شده با سرکه گرم‌کرده طلا کنند سود دهد و با سرکه بر نقرس طلا کردن نیکو بود و منع سیلان فضول از مفاصل بکند و آرد وی با پوست خشخاش و اکلیل الملک ضماد کردن بر ذات الجنب نافع بود و با انجیر چون بپزند تبهای بلغمی را نافع بود و چون مرضوض کنند و بآتش گرم کنند و بر وجعی که از حرارت بود نهند یعنی تکمید کنند ساکن کند و بر ورمهای گرم نیز همین عمل کند و بادانگیز بود و مغص آورد و مضر بود بمثانه و مصلح وی انیسون بود و آرد جو چون با انجیر بپزند و بر ورم بلغمی و ورم گرم اندازند بپزاند و بگدازد و چون با راتینج و زفت و سرگین کبوتر بیامیزند و بر ورمهای صلب نهند نضج بدهد و چون با زفت تر و موم و بول کودکان که محکم نشده باشد و زیت بیامیزند و بر خنازیر نهند نضج دهد و چون با عصاره سرد بسرشند مانند کاهو و تورک و آب عنب الثعلب و ضماد کنند بر چشم که ورم کرده آن گرم بود ساکن کند و همچنین طلا کردن بر مجموع ورمهای گرم و جمره و حمره و فلقمونی و مانند آن مفید بود و چون با سرکه بسرشند و بر پیشانی طلا کنند درد سر گرم ساکن کند و همچنین تنها با ادویه که موافق بود قلاع را زایل کند.

______________________________

صاحب مخزن الادویه می‌نویسد: شعیر بفتح شین و کسر عین بفارسی جو و بهندی سج گویند

فرانسه‌ORGE انگلیسی ‌BARLEY

اختیارات بدیعی، ص: 254

/////// جو (نام علمی: Hordeum vulgare) یکی از غلات است. چرخه زندگی این گیاه یک ساله و از خانواده گرامینه‌ها (گندمیان) است. کشت جو احتمالاً از اتیوپی و آسیای جنوب‌شرقی آغاز شده‌است.

محتویات

  [نمایش] 

خاستگاه[ویرایش]

خاستگاه واقعی جو هنوز ناشناخته است. اما بسیاری از محققین، خاستگاه این گیاه را کوه‌های زاگرس در غرب ایران، آناتولی جنوبی و فلسطین می‌دانند. بر پایه نظریه والیوف، مبداء جوی ریشک دار و غلاف دار، کشور اتیوپی و شمال آفریقا و مبداء نوع بدون ریشک، ریشک کوتاه و کلاهک دار، آسیای جنوب شرقی، به ویژه چین، ژاپن و تبت است.

«در حدود پنج هزار سال پیش از میلاد مردم غارنشین فلات ایران بر اثر تغییراتی که از لحاظ آب و هوا و تشکیل مزارع و چمنزارها به وجود آمد به دشت‌ها روی آوردند و زندگی تازه‌ای را آغاز کردند و در تمدن آن‌ها نسبت به دوران‌های پیشین پیشرفت بیشتری دیده شد. قدیمی‌ترین مردم دشت‌نشین، مردم محل سیلک (Sialk) نزدیک کاشان بودند که آثار زندگی ایشان را در آن‌جا به دست آورده‌اند. ..... تحقیقاتی که در محل مزبور انجام گرفته است نشان می‌دهد که مردم فلات ایران به امر کشاورزی پرداختند وحیوانات اهلی را نیز پرورش دادند. در هزاره چهارم پیش از میلاد مردم دشت‌نشین فلات ایران در کار زندگی پیشرفت بیشتری کردند ..... در این دوره تجارت نیز رو به پیشرفت نهاد. اما دادوستد بیش‌تر مربوط به محصولات کشاورزی مانند گندم و جو بود. مسئله دیگر که اهمیت دارد این است که کشت گندم و جو نخستین بار در ایران متداول شد.»^[۲]

جو برای تعداد زیادی از مردمان نواحی سردسیر و خشک (به ویژه خاور میانه و شمال آفریقا) منبع غذایی مهمی به شمار می‌رود. البته امروزه بیشتر برای خوراک دام و تهیهٔ فراورده‌های تخمیری از این گیاه استفاده می‌کنند.

مقاومت گیاه جو[ویرایش]

جو یکی از سازگارترین غلات است که در شرایط آب و هوایی مساعد، در خاک حاصلخیز که قابلیت نگهداری آب در آن زیاد باشد، و همچنین در خاک‌هایی که پ.هاش آنها بین ۷ تا ۸ باشد تولید می‌شود. این گیاه نسبت به گندم در برابر خشکی مقاوم تر است و بنابراین در آب و هوایی که آب، سبب محدود کردن تولید غلات می‌شود، جو می‌تواند بیشترین محصول را تولید کند. در شرایط دیم هم عملکرد جو بهتر از گندم و چاودار می‌باشد. تولید جو در همه نوع زمینی با بارندگی سالیانه ۲۰۰ تا ۲۵۰ میلیمتر امکان‌پذیر است. جو نسبت به دمای بالا (بیش از ۳۲ درجه سانتی گراد) مقاوم است. اما در شرایط آب و هوای مرطوب، در برابر دمای بالا بسیار حساس است. دانه جو نسبت به گندم برای جوانه زدن به رطوبت کمتری نیاز دارد. در مواردی که پس از جوانه زدن دانه، گیاه به علت کمبود رطوبت خشک شود، با فراهم شدن شرایط مساعد رطوبتی، گیاه رشد مجدد خود را با شدت بیشتری آغاز می‌نماید.

جو از لحاظ مقاومت به سرما، نسبت به گندم در ردیف پایین تری قرار می‌گیرد. بنابراین به نظر می‌رسد که کشت جوی پاییزه در مناطق سردسیر چندان اطمینان بخش نباشد.در مقایسه با سایر غلات، جو نسبت به شوری خاک، چه در مرحله جوانه زنی و چه در مراحل دیگر مقاوم تر است.

بزرگ‌ترین کشورهای تولیدکننده جو[ویرایش]

در ایران بعد از گندم .جو در مقام سطح زیر کشت در رتبه دوم قرار دارد و علت آن هم نیاز آبی کم و مقاومت بسیار خوب در سرما و مقاومت در برابر شوری است.

(این ارقام متعلق به سال ۲۰۰۵ می‌باشد)
ردیف	کشور	Menge (in Tsd. t)	رتبه	کشور	Menge (in Tsd. t)
1	روسیه	۱۵٫۷۷۳	9	ایالات متحده آمریکا	۴٫۶۲۰
2	کانادا	۱۲٫۱۳۳	۱۰	اسپانیا	۴٫۴۴۸
3	آلمان	۱۱٫۷۲۲	۱۱	دانمارک	۳٫۷۳۰
4	فرانسه	۱۰٫۳۵۷	۱۲	لهستان	۳٫۴۶۱
5	اوکراین	۹٫۰۰۰	۱۳	چین	۳٫۳۵۰
6	ترکیه	۹٫۰۰۰	۱۴	ایران	۲٫۹۰۰
7	استرالیا	۶٫۶۴۰	۱۵	جمهوری چک	۲٫۲۸۰
8	بریتانیا	۵٫۵۴۵		جهان	۱۳۹٫۰۴۴

انواع جو نسبت‌به دما[ویرایش]

در خصوص واکنش به دما، سه نوع جو موجود است: نوع بهاره که به سرما حساس بوده و بنابراین در بهار کاشته می‌شود. نوع پاییزه که در فصل پاییز کاشته می‌شود و تا فرارسیدن فصل بهار، سنبله تولید نمی‌کند. نوع حد واسط که نسبت به سرما مقاومت کمتری داشته و در نقاط نسبتاً گرمسیر در هر دو فصل بهار و پاییز کشت می‌شود. جوی بهاره و پاییزه را نمی‌توان همچون گندم بهاره و پاییزه که تفاوت دانه آنها کاملاً مشخص است، تشخیص داد. جوی پاییزه در بسیاری از نواحی نیمه خشک که بارندگی آنها غالباً در فصول گرم سال (بهار و تابستان) انجام می‌شود، تقریباً ۱۰ تا ۱۴ روز زودتر از گندم پاییزه کاشته می‌شود. جوی بهاره را هم تا آنجا که امکان دارد باید زودتر کاشت. البته جو نسبت به سرمای بهاره (دمای زیر صفر) نسبت به گندم حساس تر است. کشت زودتر جوی بهاره سبب می‌شود که محصول جو قبل از فرارسیدن ایام گرم و خشک، برسد. تأخیر در کشت جو سبب لاغری دانه، عملکرد پایین و... می‌شود. [ویرایش]

نیاز کودی[ویرایش]

جو هم مانند دیگر گیاهان خانواده گندمیان، مراحل رشد مختلفی دارد که زمان هر مرحله تحت تأثیر عوامل مختلف قرار می‌گیرد. یکی از عوامل مؤثر در رشد گیاه، خاک و البته استفاده از کود می‌باشد. نیازهای کودی جو مشابه گندم است. پایین بودن میزان نیتروژن و فسفر و تا حدی پتاسیم خاک، می‌تواند عملکرد جو را محدود نماید. البته استفاده از کود به منظور تولید حداکثر محصول، باید بر مبنای آب قابل مصرف برای گیاه باشد. همچنین برای تولید جو به عنوان خوراک دام، میزان کود مصرفی معمولاً زیادتر از کود مصرفی برای گیاه جو است که برای مصارف دیگر از جمله تهیهٔ فراورده‌های تخمیری کشت می‌شود. معمولاً مصرف ۵۰ تا ۶۰ کیلوگرم نیتروژن در هر هکتار، می‌تواند عملکرد جو را به نحو مطلوبی افزایش دهد.شلثبرطظ

آفات و بیماری‌ها[ویرایش]

جو نسبت به بیماری‌های قارچی فوق العاده حساس است. سیاهک یکی از مهم‌ترین این بیماری هاست. سیاهک پنهان جو، عامل قارچی به نام U.hordei می‌باشد. در این بیماری، توده‌ای از هاگ‌های سیاه رنگ جای محتویات دانه را می‌گیرد. هاگ بیماری در سطح دانه یا داخل خاک قرار می‌گیرد. زمانی که بذر جوانه می‌زند، هاگ هم جوانه زده و به گیاه جوان حمله می‌نماید. شیوع این بیماری در خاک‌های اسیدی بیش از خاک‌های خنثی یا خاک‌های آهکی (پ.هاش بیشتر از ۷) است. سیاهک آشکار، به وسیلهٔ قارچی به نام U.gnuda ایجاد می‌شود. در این بیماری، توده‌ای از هاگ‌های سیاه رنگ، جای همه اعضای گل را می‌گیرند. پس از متلاشی نمودن گل، هاگ سیاهک با باد و باران پخش شده و به تمام کلاله‌های بوته‌های آلوده نشده هم می‌رسد و انتشار می‌یاب زنگ ساقه، زنگ برگ و زنگ‌های نواری هم از دیگر بیماری‌های قارچی هستند که به خصوص در نقاط گرم و مرطوب زیان‌های فراوانی به جو وارد می‌کنند.

جو نسبت به حمله سفیدک که عامل آن Erysiphia grarninis است بسیار حساس است. این بیماری، معمولاً در خاکی که میزان نیتروژن آن بالا باشد، بیشتر انتشار می‌یابد. البته گرد گوگرد می‌تواند این بیماری را کنترل نماید. از سایر بیماری‌های جو می‌توان پوسیدگی ریشه، لکه سیاه، سوختگی و انواع بیماری‌های ویروسی را نام برد. [ویرایش]

برداشت[ویرایش]

معمولاً جو را هنگامی که رطوبت دانه بین ۳۰ تا ۴۰ درصد باشد، برداشت می‌کنند. در این میزان رطوبت، دانه‌ها چاق تر است. با توجه به این که میزان رطوبت برای انبار کردن دانه بالاست، باید به طرق مصنوعی دانه را خشک نمود تا از گرم شدن و فساد بعدی دانه جلوگیری به عمل آید.

خواص جو[ویرایش]

) جو پوست کنده که هنوز سبوس آن جدا نشده 2)جو پوست کنده که پوست آن گرفته شده است )3جو سفید که پوست وسبوس آن گرفته شده است و بنام جو مرواریدی معروف است . جو از نظر طب قدیم ایران سرد و خشک است

• غذایی بسیار مقوی است .
• خاصیت نرم کننده دارد .
• در قدیم از جو زیاد استفاده می‌کردند .
• برای نقرس مفید است .
• جوشانده جو داروی خوبی برای مبتلایان به تب و کم خونی و سوء هاضمه است .
• ماءالشعیر برای درمان سل، زخم‌های ریوی و سردرد گرم مفید است .
• ماءالشعیر خون ساز است و زود هضم می‌شود.
• ماءالشعیر را با خشخاش کوبیده برای سردرد مفید است .
• برای درمان نقرس پماد در جو را با آب بر روی قسمت‌های دردناک بگذارید .
• جو را با شکر مخلوط کرده غذای خوبی برای اطفال است .
• بیسکوبیت جو بهترین دارو برای درمان یبوست است و حتی نفخ و شکم درد را از بین می‌برد.
• سرد مزاجان باید جو را با شکر بخورند.
• کشک الشعیر برای مزاج‌های گرم و اسهال‌های صفراوی مفید است .
• برای برطرف کردن گلو درد و ورم گلو کشک الشعیر را قرقره کنید .
• برای پائین آوردن کلسترول از جو استفاده کنید .
• جو چون دارای پروتئاز می‌باشد بنابراین از سرطان جلوگیری می‌کند .^[۳]

جستارهای وابسته

• فهرست کشورها بر پایه تولید جو

1-روسیه 2-ایالات متحده 3-چین

منابع[ویرایش]

1. پرش به بالا↑ "Hordeum vulgare". سیستم اطلاعاتی جامع تاکسونومیک.
2. پرش به بالا↑ تاریخ سرزمین ایران، عباس پرویز، انتشارات نگاه، 1390، ص25 و 26.
3. پرش به بالا↑ «barley» ‎(انگلیسی)‎ (۲۰۰۷). Encyclopædia Britannica. بازبینی‌شده در ۲۲ آوریل ۲۰۰۷.

• پروژه عملیات زراعی آرش جهانشاهی
• جزوه غلات دکتر باقی دانشگاه آزاد
• زراعت عمومی دکتر محمد علی رستگار
• طب المفید
• ویکی‌پدیا آلمانی (جو)

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الشعير نوع نباتي عشبي حولي من الفصيلة النجيلية، اسمه العلمي (باللاتينية: Hordeum vulgare).

محتويات

  [أظهر] 

معلومات غذائية[عدل]

بسيسة شعير من جربة

يحتوي كل كوب من الشعير المقشّر (184 غ) بحسب وزارة الزراعة الأميركية على المكونات الغذائية التالية:

• السعرات الحرارية: 651
• الدهون: 4.23
• الدهون المشبعة: 0.88
• الكربوهيدرات: 135.20
• الألياف: 31.8
• السكر: 1.47
• البروتينات: 22.96
• الكوليسترول: 0

علم الأحياء[عدل]

لمحة تاريخية[عدل]

يعتبر الشعير أقدم مادة استعملها الإنسان في غذائه. وقد كان من المحاصيل الغذائية الرئيسية في العصور القديمة حيث كان يصنع منه الخبز.

الإنتاج[عدل]

مجموعة من قش الشعير في كولورادو.

أكبر منتجي الشعير — 2007 (ملايين الأطنان المترية)
روسيا	15.7
كندا	11.8
إسبانيا	11.7
ألمانيا	11.0
فرنسا	9.5
تركيا	7.4
أوكرانيا	6.0
أستراليا	5.9
المملكة المتحدة	5.1
الولايات المتحدة	4.6
المجموع العالمي	136
المصدر: منظمة الأغذية والزراعة (FAO)[1]

الاستزراع[عدل]

Two-row and six-row barley

الاستعمالات[عدل]

يعتبر الشعير من الحبوب الأستراتيجية التي تدخل ضمن مواد الأمن الغذائي للبشر وللحيوانات على حد السواء.

مانع للطحالب[عدل]

علف للحيوانات[عدل]

مشروبات غولية[عدل]

الجعة

طعام للإنسان[عدل]

Oats, barley, and some products made from them

أداة للقياس[عدل]

مادة للعلاج[عدل]

• الشعير ملين ومقوي للأعصاب ومنشط للكبد.
• ماء الشعير معروف لعلاج السعال وتخفيض درجة الحرارة.
• يستعمل مغلي نخالة الشعير في غسل الجروح المتقيحة واستخدم دقيق الشعير في عمل جبيرة لعلاج كسور العظام.
• يستعمل الهوردنين المستخرج من الشعير حقناً تحت الجلد أو شراباً لعلاج الإسهال والدسنتاريا والتهاب الأمعاء.

الأمراض[عدل]

الشعير لايعد مسببا للامراض بحد ذاته. لكنه يثير حساسية الجسم في بعض الحالات المرضية بسبب مادة الغلوتين فيه وتسمى هذه الحالة celiac

التكوين[عدل]

النشا، البروتين، أملاح معدنية منها الحديد والفوسفور والكالسيوم والبوتاسيوم.

التعبير في الثقافة[عدل]

مراجع[عدل]

• معلومات غذائية عن الشعير

1. ^ http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/form?collection=Production.Crops.Primary&Domain=Production&servlet=1&hasbulk=0&version=ext&language=EN

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به کردی جو:

جۆ ڕوەکێکی یەکساڵەیە لە تیرەی گەنمەکان و لە دەستەی دانەوێڵەکانە. لە کوردەواریدا تۆوی جۆ لە سەرەتای بەھار یان پاییزدا دەچێنرێ و لە ئاخری بەھاردا درەو دەکرێ.

به دیوهی (مالدیوی):

ހިމަ ގޮދަން(ސައިންޓިފިކް ނަން: Hordeum vulgare)ނުވަތަ (އިނގިރޭސި ބަހުން: Barley)އަކީ ގޮވާމުގެ ބާވަތެކެވެ. ހިމަ ގޮދަނަކީ ވަރަށް ގިނައިން ޖަނަވާރުތަކަށް ކާންދިނުމަށް ވެސް ބޭނުން ކުރާ އެއްޗެކެވެ. އާންމު ގޮތެއްގައި ޕާން، ފާރޮށި ފަދަ ތަކެތި ތައްޔާރު ކުރުމަށް ހިމަ ގޮދަނުގެ ފުށް ބޭނުން ކުރެއެވެ. މީގެ އިތުރުން ބިޔަރު، އަދި ބަގުރަލުގެ ތަފާތު ބުއިންތައް ތައްޔާރު ކުރުމަށް ވެސް ހިމަ ގޮދަން ބޭނުންކޮށް އުޅެއެވެ. މީގެ އިތުރުން ތަފާތު ވައްތަރުގެ ފިނި ބުއިންތައް ދަޅުގައި ތައްޔާރު ކުރާއިރު ހިމަ ގޮދަން ބޭނުންކޮށްފައި ހުރެއެވެ.

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به پنجابی جو:

جؤ گھآ ٹبر دا اک بوٹا تے اک اہم دینے والی فصل اے۔ ایہ انسان دیاں پہلیاں اگایئیاں گیآں فصلاں وجوں اک تے ہجے اک وڈے تھاں تے اگائی جارئی اے۔ ایہ انسانی کھان پین دے نال جانوراں دے چارے تے بیر تے ہور الکوحل والے شربتاں وچ ورتی جاندی اے۔ 2007 وچ ایہ ہوند تے اگائی تھاں وچ چوتھے نمبر تے سی۔

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به اردو جو:

جَو گندم کی طرح کی ایک زرعی جنس ہے۔ یہ فصل پوری دنیا میں بڑے پیمانے پر کاشت کی جاتی ہے اور انسانوں اور جانوروں کی خوراک کے طور پر استعمال ہوتی ہے۔ جدید تحقیق کی بنیاد پر تیار کی جانے والی اکثر غذاؤں میں جو کا استعمال ہوتا ہے۔ مغربی ممالک میں بیئر کی کشید کے لیے بھی جو کثرت سے استعمال ہوتا ہے۔ مکئی ، چاول اور گندم کے بعد یہ دنیا میں سب سے زیادہ پیدا ہونے والا اناج ہے۔ 2007 میں دنیا بھر میں 5,66,000 مربع کلومیٹر پر جو کی کاشت کی گئی اور اس سے 13,60,00,000 ٹن پیداوار حاصل ہوئی۔

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به اویغوری أرپا:

ئارپا ئىلگىرى «ئېگىزلىكتىكى ئاشلىق» دەپ ئاتىلاتتى، بۇنداق ئاتىلىشى ئۇنىڭ ئەجدادى بىلەن مۇناسىۋەتلىك.

ئارپا ئۆستۈرۈشنىڭ بارلىققا كېلىش مەسىلىسى توغرىسىدا تارىختا100 يىلدىن ئارتۇق تالاش - تارتىش بولغان، 1974 - يىلىغا كەلگەندە ئېلىمىز ئالىملىرىنىڭ چىڭخەي - شىزاڭ ئېگىزلىكىدە تۈرلۈك ياۋا ئارپىلار توغرىسىدىكى يېڭى بايقىشى بىلەن ئىلمىي يەكۈن چىقىرىلدى. ھازىر ھەممە ئادەم ئارپا ئۆستۈرۈشنىڭ كىشىلەرنىڭ تاللىشى، تېرىپ ئۆستۈرۈشى ئارقىسىدا ياۋا ئىككى قىرلىق ئارپا − ياۋا شېشىسىمان ئارپا − ياۋا ئالتە قىرلىق ئارپادىن ھازىرقى ئارپىغىچە ئۇزاق مۇددەتلىك تەدرىجىي تەرەققىيات جەريانىنى بېسىپ ئۆتكەنلىكىنى ئېتىراپ قىلىدۇ.

ئېلىمىز دۇنيا بويىچە ئەڭ بالدۇر ئارپا ئۆستۈرگەن دۆلەتلەرنىڭ بىرى. يىنشۈدىن قېزىۋېلىنغان چىغىناق - تاغاق يېزىقلىرى ئىچىدە «来» بىلەن «牟» خەتلىرىنى ئۇچراتقىلى بولىدۇ. «来» خېتى بۇغداينى؛ «牟» خېتى ئارپىنى بىلدۈرىدۇ. بۈگۈنكى تىبەت تىلىدا ئارپىنى «来» دەپ ئاتايدۇ.

ئارپا كۆڭلەكلىك ئارپا ۋە يالىڭاچ ئارپا دەپ ئىككى خىلغا ئايرىلىدۇ. يالىڭاچ ئارپا ئېلىمىزنىڭ چىڭخەي - شىزاڭ ئېگىزلىكىدىن غەربىي جەنۇبقىچە بولغان كەڭ رايونلىرىدا تېرىپ ئۆستۈرۈلىدۇ، ئۇ شۇ جايدىكى خەلقنىڭ ئاساسلىق ئاشلىقى. شىزاڭ خەلقىنىڭ مەشھۇر يېمەكلىكىدىن بىرى بولغان زەنبا بولسا ئارپا تالقىنىنى پىششىقلاپ ئىشلەش ئارقىلىق تەييارلىنىدۇ؛ مەشھۇر ئارپا ھارىقىمۇ ئارپىنى ئېچىتىپ تەييارلىنىدۇ.

ئېلىمىزدە ئۆستۈرۈلىدىغان ئارپا كۆلىمى شال، بۇغداي ۋە كۆممىقوناقتىن قالسىلا دانلىق زىرائەتلەر ئىچىدە تۆتىنچى ئورۇندا تۇرىدۇ. ئارپا يېمەكلىك ئورنىدا ئىشلىتىلگەندىن باشقا يەنە پىۋا ۋە ئىسپىرت ياساشتا خام ماتېرىيال قىلىنىدۇ، شۇنىڭ بىلەن بىر ۋاقىتتا، ئۆي قۇشلىرى، ئۆي ھايۋانلىرىنىڭ ئېسىل يەم - بوغۇزى، يېقىنقى يىللاردىن بۇيان، كىشىلەر ئارپىنى چىڭخەي - شىزاڭ ئېگىزلىكىدىكى دېڭىز يۈزىدىن4000 مېتىر ئېگىزلىكتىكى جايدا ئۆستۈردى. ئارپا ئاشلىق زىرائەتلىرى ئىچىدىكى جاپا - مۇشەققەتكە چىداملىق ئاۋانگارت بولۇشقا مۇناسىپ.

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به آذری عادی آرپا:

Adi arpa (lat. Hordeum vulgare) – qırtıckimilər fəsiləsinin arpa cinsinə aid bitki növü.

Arpanın vətəni Qədim Misir olmuşdur. Eramızdan əvvəl 5 min əvvəl mədəni surətdə misirlilər tərəfindən əkilib becərilirdi.

Naxçıvan Muxtar Respublikasında arpa zəmiləri az yer tutsa da, pivə sənayesində ən vacib xammal kimi istifadə olunur. Arpadan qədim insanlar ev heyvanlarını yemlənməsində istifadə edirlər.

Arpa

Arpa səmənisindən hazırlanan məlhəm və ya mayesi uşaqların qidasında müsbət rol oynayır. Xalq təbabətində qovrulmuş arpa ununun şəkərlə bişirilmişi uşaqlar üçün xeyirlidir. Arpa şirəsi ilə boğazı qarqara etməklə ağrısını və boğazdakı şişləri götürür

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به ترکی آرپا:

Arpa (Hordeum vulgare L.) buğdaygillerden taneleri malt ve yem olarak kullanılan önemli bir tahıl bitkisidir. Tarih öncesi devirlerdeki en önemli kültür bitkilerinden biri olmakla birlikte, ekonomik önemi olan bitkilerin başında gelmektedir.^[1][2][3] Yaklaşık 10.500 yıl önce, bugünkü İsrail, Ürdün, Lübnan, batı Suriye, batı İran, Irakile güneydoğu Türkiye’yi kapsayan ve Bereketli Hilal olarak isimlendirilen bölgede kültüre alındığı bilinmektedir.^{[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]} O zamanlarda ekimi yapılmakta olan arpa, bugün yabani arpa (Hordeum vulgareL. ssp. spontaneum (K. Koch.) Thell.) olarak da bilinen ve ilk defa Türkiye’de keşfedilmiş olan bir alt türdür. Bu alt türü, insanlar en az 18.000–19.000 yıldan beri, önemli bir besin kaynağı olarak kullanmaktadırlar.^{[2][3][4][8][9]}İnsanlar arpayı 10.000 yıl öncesinde Orta Doğu’dan başlayarak, 2.000 yıl öncesinde Çin’e kadar, dünyanın farklı yerlerinde ıslah etmişler böylece bugün kullandığımız arpayı (Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare L.) elde etmişlerdir.

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Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climatesglobally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 13,000 years ago. Barley has also been used as animal fodder, as a source of fermentable material for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a component of various health foods. It is used in soups and stews, and in barley bread of various cultures. Barley grains are commonly made into malt in a traditional and ancient method of preparation.

In a 2007 ranking of cereal crops in the world, barley was fourth both in terms of quantity produced (136 million tons) and in area of cultivation (566,000 square kilometres or 219,000 square miles).^[3]

Contents

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Etymology[edit]

The Old English word for 'barley' was bære, which traces back to Proto-Indo-European and is cognate to the Latinword farina "flour". The direct ancestor of modern English "barley" in Old English was the derived adjective bærlic,meaning "of barley".^[4] The first citation of the form bærlic in the Oxford English Dictionary dates to around 966 CE, in the compound word bærlic-croft.^[5] The underived word bære survives in the north of Scotland as bere, and refers to a specific strain of six-row barley grown there.^[6] The word barn, which originally meant "barley-house", is also rooted in these words.^[4]

Biology[edit]

Barley

The cross-section of a barley root

Barley is a member of the grass family. It is a self-pollinating, diploid species with 14 chromosomes. The wild ancestor of domesticated barley, Hordeum vulgare subsp. spontaneum, is abundant in grasslands and woodlands throughout the Fertile Crescent area of Western Asia and northeast Africa, and is abundant in disturbed habitats, roadsides and orchards. Outside this region, the wild barley is less common and is usually found in disturbed habitats.^[7] However, in a study of genome-wide diversity markers, Tibet was found to be an additional center of domestication of cultivated barley.^[8]

Domestication[edit]

Wild barley has a brittle spike; upon maturity, the spikelets separate, facilitating seed dispersal. Domesticated barley has nonshattering spikes, making it much easier to harvest the mature ears.^[7] The nonshattering condition is caused by a mutation in one of two tightly linked genes known as Bt₁ and Bt₂; many cultivars possess both mutations. The nonshattering condition is recessive, so varieties of barley that exhibit this condition are homozygousfor the mutant allele.^{[7][clarification needed]}

Two-row and six-row barley[edit]

Two-row and six-row barley

Spikelets are arranged in triplets which alternate along the rachis. In wild barley (and other Old World species ofHordeum), only the central spikelet is fertile, while the other two are reduced. This condition is retained in certain cultivars known as two-row barleys. A pair of mutations (one dominant, the other recessive) result in fertile lateral spikelets to produce six-row barleys.^[7] Recent genetic studies have revealed that a mutation in one gene, vrs1, is responsible for the transition from two-row to six-row barley.^[9]

Two-row barley has a lower protein content than six-row barley, thus a more fermentable sugar content. High-protein barley is best suited for animal feed. Malting barley is usually lower protein^[10] ("low grain nitrogen", usually produced without a late fertilizer application) which shows more uniform germination, needs shorter steeping, and has less protein in the extract that can make beer cloudy. Two-row barley is traditionally used in English ale-style beers. Six-row barley is common in some American lager-style beers, especially when adjuncts such as corn and rice are used, whereas two-row malted summer barley is preferred for traditional German beers.

Hulless barley[edit]

Hulless or "naked" barley (Hordeum vulgare L. var. nudum Hook. f.) is a form of domesticated barley with an easier-to-remove hull. Naked barley is an ancient food crop, but a new industry has developed around uses of selected hulless barley to increase the digestible energy of the grain, especially for swine and poultry.^[11] Hulless barley has been investigated for several potential new applications as whole grain, and for its value-added products. These include bran and flour for multiple food applications.^[12]

Classification[edit]

Barley

In traditional classifications of barley, these morphological differences have led to different forms of barley being classified as different species. Under these classifications, two-rowed barley with shattering spikes (wild barley) is classified as Hordeum spontaneum K. Koch. Two-rowed barley with nonshattering spikes is classified as H. distichum L., six-row barley with nonshattering spikes as H. vulgare L. (or H. hexastichum L.), and six-row with shattering spikes as H. agriocrithon Åberg.

Because these differences were driven by single-gene mutations, coupled with cytological and molecular evidence, most recent classifications treat these forms as a single species, H. vulgare L.^[7]

Cultivars[edit]

Vocabulary

• DON: Acronym for deoxynivalenol, a toxic byproduct of Fusarium head blight, also known as vomitoxin.
• Heading date: A parameter in barley cultivation.^[13]
• Lodging: The bending over of the stems near ground level.
• Nutans: A designation for a variety with a lax ear, as opposed to 'erectum' (with an erect ear).
• QCC: A pathotype of stem rust (Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici).
• Rachilla: The part of a spikelet that bears the florets. The length of the rachilla hairs is a characteristic of barley varieties.

Cultivars

• 'Azure', a six-rowed, blue-aleurone malting barley released in 1982. It was high-yielding with strong straw, but was susceptible to loose smut.
• 'Beacon', a six-rowed malting barley with rough awns, short rachilla hairs and colorless aleurone. Released in 1973, it was the first North Dakota State University (NDSU) barley that had resistance to loose smut.
• Bere, a six-row barley currently cultivated mainly on 5-15 hectares of land in Orkney, Scotland. Two additional parcel on the island of Islay, Scotland were planted in 2006 for Bruichladdich Distillery.
• 'Betzes', an old German two-row barley introduced into North America from Kraków, Poland, by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).^[14] The Montana and Idaho agricultural experiment stations released Betzes in 1957. It is a midshort, medium-strength-strawed, midseason-maturing barley. It has a midsize-to-large kernel with yellow aleurone. Betzes is susceptible to loose and covered smuts, rusts, and scald.
• 'Bowman', a two-rowed, smooth-awned variety jointly released by NDSU and USDA in 1984 as a feed barley spring variety developed in North Dakota. It has good test weight and straw strength. It is resistant to wheat stem rust but is susceptible to loose smut and barley yellow dwarf virus.
• 'Celebration', a variety developed by the barley breeding program at Busch Agricultural Resources and released in 2008. Through a collaborative agreement between the North Dakota State University Foundation Seedstocks (NDFSS) project and Busch Agricultural Resources, all foundation seed of Celebration barley will be produced and distributed by the NDFSS. Celebration has excellent agronomic performance and malt quality. It is a Midwestern variety, well-adapted for Minnesota, North Dakota, Idaho, and Montana, with medium-early maturity, medium-early heading, medium-short height, mid-lax head type, rough awns, short rachilla hairs, and colorless aleurone, moderately resistant to Septoria and net blotch. It has improved reaction to Fusarium head blight and consistently lower DON content.
• 'Centennial', a Canadian variety developed from the cross of Lenta x Sanalta by the University of Alberta. It is a two-row, relatively short, stiff-strawed, late-maturing variety. The kernel is midlong with yellow aleurone. It was released as a feed barley.
• 'Compana', an American variety developed from a composite cross by the Idaho and Montana Agricultural Experiment Stations in cooperation with the USDA's Plant Science Research Division. It was released by Montana in 1941. Compana is a two-row variety with moderately weak straw, midshort with midseason maturity. The kernels are long and wide with yellow aleurone. This variety is resistant to loose smut and moderately resistant to covered smut.
• 'Conlon', a two-row barley released by NDSU in 1996. Test weight and yield is better than Bowman. Yield is equal to Stark. Conlon heads earlier than Bowman and shows good heat tolerance by kernel plumpness. It is resistant to powdery mildew and net blotch but is moderately susceptible to spot blotch. It is prone to lodging under high-yield growing conditions. It appears best adapted to western North Dakota and adjacent western states.
• 'Diamant', a Czech high-yield, short-height, mutant variety created with X-rays.
• 'Dickson', a six-row, rough-awned variety released by NDSU in 1965. It had good straw strength and was resistant to stem rust but susceptible to loose smut. Dickson had more resistance to prevalent leaf spot diseases than Trophy, Larker and Traill. It was similar to Trophy in heading date, plant height and straw strength. It had less plumpness than Trophy and Larker but more than Traill and Kindred.
• 'Drummond', a six-row malting variety released by NDSU in 2000. It has white aleurone, long rachilla hairs and semi-smooth awns. Drummond has better straw strength than current six-row varieties. Heading date is similar to Robust and plant height is similar to Stander. It is resistant to spot blotch and moderately susceptible to net blotch. However, its net blotch resistance is better than any current variety. Fusarium head blight reaction is similar to that of Robust. It is resistant to prevalent races of wheat stem rust but is susceptible to pathotype Pgt-QCC. Drummond is on the American Malting Barley Association's list of recommended varieties. In two years of plant scale evaluation, Drummond was found satisfactory by Anheuser-Busch, Inc. and Miller Brewing.
• 'Excel', a six-row, white-aleurone malting barley released by Minnesota in 1990. Shorter in height than other six-row barleys grown at that time, it is high-yielding with medium-early maturity, moderately strong straw, smooth awns and long rachilla hairs. It has high resistance to stem rust and moderate resistance to spot blotch but is susceptible to loose smut. Malting traits are equal or greater than Morex with plum kernel percentage lower than Robust.
• 'Foster', a six-row, white-aleurone malting barley released by NDSU in 1995. About one day earlier and slightly shorter than Robust, it is higher-yielding than Morex, Robust and Hazen. Straw strength is similar to Excel and Stander but better than Robust. It is moderately susceptible to net blotch but resistant to spot blotch. Protein is 1.5 percent lower than Robust and Morex.
• 'Glenn', a six-row, white-aleurone variety released by NDSU in 1978. Glenn was resistant to prevalent races of loose and covered smut with better resistance to leaf spot diseases than Larker. It matured about two days earlier than Larker and yielded about 10 percent more than Larker and Beacon.
• 'Golden Promise', an English semi-dwarf, salt-tolerant mutant variety (created with gamma rays^[15]) used to make beer and whiskey.
• 'Hazen', a six-row, smooth-awn, white-aleurone feed barley released by NDSU in 1984. Hazen heads two days later than Glenn. It is susceptible to loose smut.
• Highland barley, a crop cultivated on the Tibetan Plateau.
• 'Kindred', released in 1941 and developed from a selection made by S.T. Lykken, a Kindred, North Dakota farmer. It was a six-row, rough-awned, medium-early Manchurian-type malting variety that gave good yields. Kindred had stem rust resistance but was moderately susceptible to spot blotch and Septoria. It was less susceptible to blight and root rot than Wisconsin 38. It was medium-height with weak straw.
• 'Kindred L', a re-selection made to eliminate blue Manchurian types.
• 'Larker', a six-rowed, semi-smooth-awn malting barley first released in 1961. It was medium-maturity with moderate straw strength and medium height. Larker was rust-resistant but susceptible to leaf diseases and loose smut. It was superior to all other malt varieties for kernel plumpness at the time of release.
• 'Logan', released by NDSU in 1995, is classed as a non-malting barley. It is a white-aleurone, two-row barley similar to Bowman in heading date and plant height and similar to Morex for foliar diseases. It has better yield, test weight, and lodging score, and lower protein, than Bowman and Morex.
• 'Lux', a Danish variety.^[16]
• 'Manchurian', a blue-aleurone malting variety released by NDSU in 1922. It had weak to moderate-stiff straw and was susceptible to stem rust. It was developed from false stripe virus-free stock.
• 'Manscheuri', also designated Accession No. 871, a six-row barley that may have been first released by NDSU before 1904. It outyielded most of the common types being grown in North Dakota at the time. It had stiffer straw than varieties at the time and a longer head filled with large, plump kernels.
• 'Mansury', also designated Accession No. 172, a two-row barley first released by NDSU in about 1905.
• Maris Otter, an English two-row winter variety commonly used in the production of malt for the brewing industry, no longer on the recommended list of approved malting barley varieties. Despite this, it remains popular for Craft Beer and among homebrewers.
• 'Morex', a six-row, white-aleurone, smooth-awn malting variety released by Minnesota in 1978. Morex, which stands for "more extract", is highly resistant to stem rust, moderate to spot blotch and susceptible to loose smut.
• 'Nordal', a spring nutans variety from Carlsberg, Sweden released in 1971.^[17][18]
• 'Nordic', a six-rowed, colorless-aleurone feed barley released in 1971. It had rough awns and short rachilla hairs. Yield was similar to Dickson but greater than Larker. Kernel plumpness and test weight was superior to Dickson but less than Larker. Lodging, spot and net blotch resistance was similar to Dickson but it had higher resistance to Septoria leaf blotch. It showed less leaf rust symptoms compared to other varieties at the time.
• 'Optic'
• 'Park', a six-row, white-aleurone malting barley released in 1978. Park had better resistance to leaf spot diseases, spot blotch, net blotch and Septorialeaf blotch than Larker.
• 'Plumage Archer', an English malt variety.
• 'Pearl'
• 'Pinnacle', a variety released by the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station in 2006. Pinnacle has high yield, low protein, long rachilla hairs, smooth awns, white aleurone, medium-late maturity, medium height and strong straw strength.
• 'Proctor', a parent cultivar of 'Maris Otter'.
• 'Pioneer', a parent cultivar of 'Maris Otter'.
• 'Rawson', a variety developed by the NDSU Barley Breeding Program and released by the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station in 2005. Rawson's general characteristics were very large kernels, loose hull, long rachilla hairs, rough awns, white aleurone, medium maturity, medium height, and medium straw strength.
• 'Robust', a six-row, white-aleurone malting variety released by Minnesota in 1983. Maturity is two days later than Morex.
• 'Sioux', a selection from Tregal released by NDSU. It was a six-row, medium-early variety with white aleurone, rough awns and long rachilla hairs. It was high-yielding with plump kernels. Its disease reaction was similar to Tregal.
• 'Stark', a two-row non-malting barley released by NDSU in 1991. It has stiff straw and large kernels, and appears best adapted to western North Dakota and adjacent western states. Stark is about one day later and two inches shorter to Bowman, with equal or better test weight. Stark yields about 10 percent better than Bowman. It is moderately resistant to net and spot blotch but is susceptible to loose smut, leaf rust and the QCC race of wheat stem rust.
• 'Tradition', a variety with excellent agronomic performance and malt quality, well-adapted to Minnesota, North Dakota, Idaho and Montana. Tradition has medium relative maturity, medium-short height, and very strong straw. Tradition has a nodding head type, semi-smooth awns, long rachilla hairs and white aleurone.
• 'Traill', a medium-early, rough-awn, white-aleurone malting variety released by NDSU in 1956. It was resistant to stem rust and had the same reaction to spot blotch and Septoria as Kindred. Traill had greater yield and straw strength than Kindred but had smaller kernel size.
• 'Tregal', a high-yield, smooth-awn, six-row feed barley released by NDSU in 1943. It was medium-early with short, stiff straw, erect head, and high resistance to loose smut. Tregal was similar to Kindred for reaction to spot blotch with similar tolerance to Septoria.
• 'Trophy', a six-row, rough-awn malting variety with colorless aleurone released by NDSU in 1964. Similar to Traill and Kindred in plant height, heading date and test weight, it had a higher percentage of plump kernels. Its yield in North Dakota was greater than Kindred and similar to Traill. Similar to Kindred and Traill, it was resistant to stem rust but susceptible to loose smut and Septoria leaf blotch. Trophy had some field resistance to net blotch. It had greater straw strength than Kindred. Trophy had greater enzymatic activity and quality than Traill.
• 'Windich', a Western Australian grain cultivar named after Tommy Windich (c. 1840–c. 1876).
• 'Yagan', a Western Australian grain cultivar named after Yagan (c. 1795-1833).

^[19]

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

Chemistry[edit]

H. vulgare contains the phenolics caffeic acid and p-coumaric acid, the ferulic acid 8,5'-diferulic acid, the flavonoids catechin-7-O-glucoside,^[20] saponarin,^[21] catechin, procyanidin B3, procyanidin C2, and prodelphinidin B3, and the alkaloid hordenine.

History[edit]

An account of barley rations issued monthly to adults (30 or 40 pints) and children (20 pints) written incuneiform on clay tablet, written in year 4 of KingUrukagina (circa 2350 BCE), from Girsu, Iraq, British Museum, London

Barley was one of the first domesticated grains in the Fertile Crescent, an area of relatively abundant water in Western Asia, and near the Nile river of northeast Africa.^[22] The grain appeared in the same time as einkorn and emmer wheat.^[23] Wild barley (H. vulgare ssp. spontaneum) ranges from North Africa and Crete in the west, to Tibet in the east.^[7] The earliest evidence of wild barley in an archaeological context comes from the Epipaleolithic at Ohalo II at the southern end of the Sea of Galilee. The remains were dated to about 8500 BCE.^[7] The earliest domesticated barley occurs at aceramic ("pre-pottery") Neolithic sites, in the Near East such as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B layers of Tell Abu Hureyra, in Syria. By 4200 BCE domesticated barley occurs as far as in Eastern Finland.^[24] Barley has been grown in the Korean Peninsula since the Early Mumun Pottery Period (circa 1500–850 BCE) along with other crops such as millet, wheat, and legumes.^[25]

In the Pulitzer Prize-winning book Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond proposed that the availability of barley, along with other domesticable crops and animals, in southwestern Eurasia significantly contributed to the broad historical patterns that human history has followed over approximately the last 13,000 years; i.e., why Eurasian civilizations, as a whole, have survived and conquered others.^[26]

Barley beer was probably one of the first alcoholic drinks developed by Neolithic humans.^[27] Barley later on was used as currency.^[27] Alongside emmer wheat, barley was a staple cereal of ancient Egypt, where it was used to make bread andbeer. The general name for barley is jt (hypothetically pronounced "eat"); šma (hypothetically pronounced "SHE-ma") refers to Upper Egyptian barley and is a symbol of Upper Egypt. The Sumerian term is akiti. According to Deuteronomy 8:8, barley is one of the "Seven Species" of crops that characterize the fertility of the Promised Land of Canaan, and it has a prominent role in the Israelite sacrifices described in the Pentateuch (see e.g. Numbers 5:15). A religious importance extended into theMiddle Ages in Europe, and saw barley's use in justice, via alphitomancy and the corsned.

Barley in Egyptian hieroglyphs
jt barley determinative/ideogram
jt (common) spelling
šma determinative/ideogram

Rations of barley for workers appear in Linear B tablets in Mycenaean contexts at Knossos and at Micenaean Pylos.^[28] In mainland Greece, the ritual significance of barley possibly dates back to the earliest stages of theEleusinian Mysteries. The preparatory kykeon or mixed drink of the initiates, prepared from barley and herbs, referred in the Homeric hymn to Demeter, whose name some scholars believe meant "Barley-mother".^[29] The practice was to dry the barley groats and roast them before preparing the porridge, according to Pliny the Elder'sNatural History (xviii.72). This produces malt that soon ferments and becomes slightly alcoholic.

Pliny also noted barley was a special food of gladiators known as hordearii, "barley-eaters". However, by Roman times, he added that wheat had replaced barley as a staple.^[30]

Tibetan barley has been a staple food in Tibetan cuisine since the fifth century CE. This grain, along with a cool climate that permitted storage, produced a civilization that was able to raise great armies.^[31] It is made into a flour product called tsampa that is still a staple in Tibet.^[32] The flour is roasted and mixed with butter and butter tea to form a stiff dough that is eaten in small balls.

In medieval Europe, bread made from barley and rye was peasant food, while wheat products were consumed by the upper classes.^[30] Potatoes largely replaced barley in Eastern Europe in the 19th century.^[33]

Genetics[edit]

The genome of barley was sequenced in 2012,^[34] due the effort of the International Barley Genome Sequencing consortium and also the UK Barley Sequencing Consortium.

The genome is composed of seven pairs of nuclear chromosomes (recommended designations: 1H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H and 7H), and one mitochondrial and one chloroplastic chromosome, with a total of 5000 Mbp.^[35]

Abundant biological information is already freely available in several barley databases.^[36]

Production[edit]

Top barley producers in millions of metric tons[37]
Rank	Country	2011	2012	2013
01	Russia	16.9	14.0	15.4
02	Germany	8.7	10.4	10.3
03	France	8.8	11.3	10.3
04	Canada	7.8	8.0	10.2
05	Spain	8.3	6.0	10.1
06	Turkey	7.6	7.1	7.9
07	Ukraine	9.1	6.9	7.6
08	Australia	8.0	8.2	7.5
09	United Kingdom	5.5	5.5	7.1
10	Argentina	4.1	5.2	4.7
—	World total	134.3	133.5	144.8

Barley was grown in about 100 countries worldwide in 2013. The world production in 1974 was 148,818,870 tonnes; since then, there has been a slight decline in the amount of barley produced worldwide.^[30] Upon the results of 2011, Ukraine was the world leader in barley export.^[38]

Cultivation[edit]

Barley harvesting in Gaziantep,Turkey

Barley is a widely adaptable crop. It is currently popular in temperate areas where it is grown as a summer crop and tropical areas where it is sown as a winter crop. Its germination time is one to three days. Barley grows under cool conditions, but is not particularly winter hardy.

Barley is more tolerant of soil salinity than wheat, which might explain the increase of barley cultivation in Mesopotamia from the second millennium BCE onwards. Barley is not as cold tolerant as the winter wheats (Triticum aestivum), fall rye (Secale cereale) or winter triticale (× Triticosecale Wittm. ex A. Camus.), but may be sown as a winter crop in warmer areas of Australia and Great Britain.

Barley has a short growing season and is also relatively drought tolerant.^[30]

Plant diseases[edit]

Main article: List of barley diseases

This plant is known or likely to be susceptible to barley mild mosaic bymovirus,^[39][40] as well as bacterial blight. It can be susceptible to many diseases, but plant breeders have been working hard to incorporate resistance. The devastation caused by any one disease will depend upon the susceptibility of the variety being grown and the environmental conditions during disease development. Serious diseases of barley include powdery mildew caused by Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei, leaf scald caused by Rhynchosporium secalis, barley rust caused by Puccinia hordei, crown rust caused by Puccinia coronata, and various diseases caused by Cochliobolus sativus. Barley is also susceptible to head blight.

Food[edit]

Raw barley
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	1,473 kJ (352 kcal)
Carbohydrates	77.7 g
Sugars	0.8 g
Dietary fiber	15.6 g
Fat	1.2 g
Protein	9.9 g
Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv. beta-carotene lutein zeaxanthin	(0%) 13 μg 160 μg
Thiamine (B1)	(17%) 0.191 mg
Riboflavin (B2)	(10%) 0.114 mg
Niacin (B3)	(31%) 4.604 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)	(6%) 0.282 mg
Vitamin B6	(20%) 0.26 mg
Folate (B9)	(6%) 23 μg
Choline	(8%) 37.8 mg
Vitamin C	(0%) 0 mg
Vitamin K	(2%) 2.2 μg
Minerals
Calcium	(3%) 29 mg
Iron	(19%) 2.5 mg
Magnesium	(22%) 79 mg
Manganese	(63%) 1.322 mg
Phosphorus	(32%) 221 mg
Potassium	(6%) 280 mg
Sodium	(1%) 9 mg
Zinc	(22%) 2.13 mg
Full Link to USDA Database entry
Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated usingUS recommendations for adults.

Nutrition[edit]

In a 100 gram serving, raw barley provides 352 calories and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of essential nutrients, including protein, dietary fiber, the B vitamins, niacin (31% DV) and vitamin B6 (20% DV), and several dietary minerals (table). Highest nutrient contents are for manganese (63% DV) andphosphorus (32% DV) (table). Raw barley is 78% carbohydrates, 1% fat, 10% protein and 10% water (table).

Preparation[edit]

Barley, oats, and some products made from them

Hulled barley (or covered barley) is eaten after removing the inedible, fibrous, outer hull. Once removed, it is called dehulled barley (or pot barley or scotch barley).^[41] Considered a whole grain, dehulled barley still has itsbran and germ, making it a nutritious and popular health food. Pearl barley (or pearled barley) is dehulled barley which has been steam processed further to remove the bran.^[41] It may be polished, a process known as "pearling". Dehulled or pearl barley may be processed into a variety of barley products, including flour, flakes similar to oatmeal, and grits.

Barley meal, a wholemeal barley flour lighter than wheat meal but darker in colour, is used in porridge andgruel in Scotland.^[41] Barley meal gruel is known as sawiq in the Arab world.^[42] With a long history of cultivation in the Middle East, barley is used in a wide range of traditional Arabic, Assyrian, Israelite, Kurdish, and Persianfoodstuffs including kashkak, kashk and murri. Barley soup is traditionally eaten during Ramadan in Saudi Arabia.^[43] Cholent or hamin (in Hebrew) is a traditional Jewish stew often eaten on Sabbath, in a variety of recipes by both Mizrachi and Ashkenazi Jews, with barley cited throughout the Hebrew Bible in multiple references. In Eastern and Central Europe, barley is also used in soups and stews such as ričet. In Africa, where it is a traditional food plant, it has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare.^[44]

The six-row variety bere is cultivated in Orkney, Shetland, Caithness and the Western Isles in the Scottish Highlands and islands. When milled into beremeal it is used locally in bread, biscuits, and the traditional beremeal bannock.^[45]

Health implications[edit]

According to Health Canada and the US FDA, consuming at least 3 grams per day of barley beta-glucan or 0.75 grams per serving of soluble fiber can lower levels of blood cholesterol, a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases.^[46][47]

Eating whole-grain barley improves regulation of blood sugar (i.e. reduce blood glucose response to a meal) for up to 10 hours after consumption compared to white or even whole-grain wheat, which have similarglycemic indices.^[48][49] Consuming breakfast cereals^[50] or soup^[51] containing barley over weeks to months also improved cholesterol levels and glucose regulation.

Like wheat, rye, and their hybrids and derivatives, barley contains gluten, which makes it an unsuitable grain for consumption by people with gluten-related disorders, such as celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivityand wheat allergy sufferers, among others.^[52] Nevertheless, some wheat allergy patients can tolerate barley or rye.^[53]

Beverages[edit]

See also: List of barley-based beverages

Alcoholic beverages[edit]

The Reinheitsgebot law of 15th century Holy Roman Empire allowed only barley to be the grain used for beer brewing (Czech beerBudweiser Budvar depicted).

Half of the United States' barley production is used as livestock feed.^[54] A large part (about 25%) of the remainder is used for malting, for which barley is the best-suited grain.^[55] It is a key ingredient in beer and whisky production. Two-row barley is traditionally used in German and English beers. Six-row barley was traditionally used in US beers, but both varieties are in common usage now.^[56] Distilled from green beer,^[57] whisky has been made primarily from barley in Ireland and Scotland, while other countries have used more diverse sources of alcohol, such as the more common corn, rye and wheat in the USA. In the US, a grain type may be identified on a whisky label if that type of grain constitutes 51% or more of the ingredients and certain other conditions are satisfied.^[58]

Barley wine is a style of strong beer from the English brewing tradition. Another alcoholic drink known by the same name, enjoyed in the 18th century, was prepared by boiling barley in water, then mixing the barley water with white wine and other ingredients, such as borage, lemon and sugar. In the 19th century, a different barley wine was made prepared from recipes of ancient Greek origin.^[4]

Nonalcoholic beverages[edit]

Nonalcoholic drinks such as barley water^[4] and roasted barley tea^[59] have been made by boiling barley in water. In Italy, barley is also sometimes used as coffee substitute, caffè d'orzo (coffee of barley). This drink is obtained from ground, roasted barley and it is prepared as an espresso (it can be prepared using percolators, filter machines or cafetieres). It became widely used during the Fascist period and the war, as Italy was affected by embargo and struggled to import coffee. It was also a cheaper option for poor families (often grown and roasted at home) in the period. Afterwards, it was promoted and sold as a coffee substitute for children. Nowadays, it is experiencing a revival and it can be considered some Italians' favourite alternative to coffee when, for health reasons, caffeine drinks are not recommended.

Other uses[edit]

Animal feed[edit]

Half of the United States' barley production is used as livestock feed.^[60] Barley is an important feed grain in many areas of the world not typically suited for maize production, especially in northern climates—for example, northern and eastern Europe. Barley is the principal feed grain in Canada, Europe, and in the northern United States.^[61] A finishing diet of barley is one of the defining characteristics of western Canadian beef used in marketing campaigns.^[62]

Fish feed[edit]

As of 2014, an enzymatic process can be used to make a high-protein fish feed from barley, which is suitable for carnivorous fish such as trout andsalmon.^[63]

Algicide[edit]

Barley straw used in a pond in Oud-Heverlee, Belgium

Barley straw, in England, is placed in mesh bags and floated in fish ponds or water gardens to help reduce algal growth without harming pond plants and animals. Barley straw has not been approved by the EPA for use as a pesticide and its effectiveness as an algicide in ponds has produced mixed results during university testing in the US and the UK.^[64]

Measurement[edit]

Barley grains were used for measurement in England, there being three or four barleycorns to the inch and four or five poppy seeds to the barleycorn.^[65] The statute definition of an inch was three barleycorns, although by the 19th century, this had been superseded by standard inch measures.^[66] This unit still persists in the shoe sizes used in Britain and the USA.^[67]

As modern studies show, the actual length of a kernel of barley varies from as short as 4–7 mm (0.16–0.28 in) to as long as 12–15 mm (0.47–0.59 in) depending on the cultivar.^[68][69] Older sources claimed the average length of a grain of barley being 0.345 in (8.8 mm).^[70]

The barleycorn was known as arpa in Turkish, and the feudal system in Ottoman Empire employed the term arpalik, or "barley-money", to refer to a second allowance made to officials to offset the costs of fodder for their horses.^[71]

Ornamental[edit]

A new stabilized variegated variety of Hordeum vulgare, billed as Hordeum vulgare varigate, has been introduced for cultivation as an ornamental and pot plant for pet cats to nibble.^[72]

Cultural[edit]

The Islamic prophet Muhammad prescribed barley (talbina) for seven diseases.^[73] It was also said^{[by whom?]} to soothe and calm the bowels. Avicenna, in his 11th century work The Canon of Medicine, wrote of the healing effects of barley water, soup and broth for fevers.^[74] Additionally, barley can be roasted and turned into roasted barley tea, a popular Asian drink.

In English folklore, the figure of John Barleycorn in the folksong of the same name is a personification of barley, and of the alcoholic beverages made from it, beer and whisky. In the song, John Barleycorn is represented as suffering attacks, death, and indignities that correspond to the various stages of barley cultivation, such as reaping and malting. He may be related to older pagan gods, such as Mímir or Kvasir.^[75]

References[edit]

Notes[edit]

1. Jump up^ "Hordeum vulgare". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
2. Jump up^ The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species, retrieved 2 February2016
3. Jump up^ "FAOSTAT". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.Archived from the original on 8 May 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-18.
4. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Ayto, John (1990). The glutton's glossary : a dictionary of food and drink terms. London: Routledge. pp. 16–17. ISBN 0-415-02647-4.
5. Jump up^ J. Simpson, E. Weiner (eds), ed. (1989). "barley". Oxford English Dictionary(2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-861186-2.
6. Jump up^ "Dictionary of the Scots Language: "DSL - DOST Bere, Beir"". Retrieved2008-11-19.
7. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f g} Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 59–69.ISBN 0-19-850357-1.
8. Jump up^ Dai, F.; Nevo, E.; Wu, D.; Comadran, J.; Zhou, M.; Qiu, L.; Chen, Z.; Beiles, A.; et al. (2012). "Tibet is one of the centers of domestication of cultivated barley". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109(42): 16969–16973. doi:10.1073/pnas.1215265109.
9. Jump up^ Komatsuda, T.; Pourkheirandish, M; He, C; Azhaguvel, P; Kanamori, H; Perovic, D; Stein, N; Graner, A; et al. (2006). "Six-rowed barley originated from a mutation in a homeodomain-leucine zipper I-class homeobox gene".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104 (4): 1424–1429. doi:10.1073/pnas.0608580104.PMC 1783110. PMID 17220272.
10. Jump up^ Adrian Johnston, Scott Murrell, and Cynthia Grant. "Nitrogen Fertilizer Management of Malting Barley: Impacts of Crop and Fertilizer Nitrogen Prices (Prairie Provinces and Northern Great Plains States)". International Plant Nutrition Institute. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
11. Jump up^ Bhatty, R.S. (1999). "The potential of hull-less barley". Cereal Chemistry 76(5): 589–599. doi:10.1094/CCHEM.1999.76.5.589.
12. Jump up^ Bhatty, R.S. (2011). "β-glucan and flour yield of hull-less barley". Cereal Chemistry 76 (2): 314–315. doi:10.1094/CCHEM.1999.76.2.314.
13. Jump up^ Genetic analysis of heading date and other agronomic characters in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). J.H. Esparza Martínez and A.E. Foster, Euphytica, 03-1998, Volume 99, Issue 3, pages 145-153, doi:10.1023/A:1018380617288
14. Jump up^ Wiebe, G.A.; Reid, D.A. (1961). Classification of Barley Varieties Grown in the United States and Canada in 1958. U.S. Department of Agriculture. p. 210.
15. Jump up^ Broad, William J. "Useful Mutants, Bred With Radiation", New York Times, 2007-08-28. Retrieved on 2015-08-10.
16. Jump up^ Identification of barley mutants in the cultivar ‘Lux’ at the Dhn loci through TILLING. S. Lababidi, N. Mejlhede, S. K. Rasmussen, G. Backes, W. Al-Said, M. Baum and A. Jahoor, Plant Breeding, August 2009, Volume 128, Issue 4, pages 332–336, doi:10.1111/j.1439-0523.2009.01640.x
17. Jump up^ "Barley Pedigree Catalogue". Retrieved 6 October 2014.
18. Jump up^ Biosynthesis of proanthocyanidins in barley: Genetic control of the conversion of dihydroquercetin to catechin and procyanidins. Klaus Nyegaard Kristiansen, Carlsberg Research Communications, January 1984, Volume 49, Issue 5, pages 503-524, doi:10.1007/BF02907552
19. Jump up^ "Barley varieties developed at North Dakota State University". Retrieved6 October 2014.
20. Jump up^ Wolfgang Friedrich and Rudolf Galensa (2002). "Identification of a new flavanol glucoside from barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and malt". European Food Research and Technology 214 (5): 388–393. doi:10.1007/s00217-002-0498-x.
21. Jump up^ Kamiyama M, Shibamoto T (2012). "Flavonoids with Potent Antioxidant Activity Found in Young Green Barley Leaves". J. Agric. Food Chem. 60 (25): 6260–6267. doi:10.1021/jf301700j. PMID 22681491.
22. Jump up^ Badr, A.; M, K.; Sch, R.; Rabey, H.E.; Effgen, S.; Ibrahim, H.H.; Pozzi, C.; Rohde, W.; Salamini, F. (2000). "On the Origin and Domestication History of Barley (Hordeum vulgare)". Molecular Biology and Evolution 17 (4): 499–510. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026330. PMID 10742042.
23. Jump up^ -Saltini Antonio, I semi della civiltà. Grano, riso e mais nella storia delle società umane,, prefazione di Luigi Bernabò Brea Avenue Media, Bologna 1996
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Bibliography[edit]

• McGee, Harold (1986). On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. Unwin. ISBN 0-04-440277-5

Barley
Drawing of Barley
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Monocots
(unranked):	Commelinids
Order:	Poales
Family:	Poaceae
Subfamily:	Pooideae
Tribe:	Triticeae
Genus:	Hordeum
Species:	H. vulgare[1]
Binomial name
Hordeum vulgare L.
Synonyms[2]
List[hide]   Frumentum hordeum E.H.L.Krausenom. illeg. Frumentum sativum E.H.L.Krause Hordeum aestivum R.E.Regel nom. inval. Hordeum americanum R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum bifarium Roth Hordeum brachyatherum R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum caspicum R.E.Regel nom. inval. Hordeum coeleste (L.) P.Beauv. Hordeum daghestanicum R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum defectoides R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum durum R.E.Regel nom. inval. Hordeum elongatum R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum gymnodistichum Duthie Hordeum heterostychon P.Beauv. [Spelling variant] Hordeum hexastichon L. Hordeum hibernaculum R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum hibernans R.E.Regel nom. inval. Hordeum himalayense Schult. Hordeum hirtiusculum R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum horsfordianum R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum ircutianum R.E.Regel nom. inval. Hordeum jarenskianum R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum juliae R.E.Regel nom. inval. Hordeum kalugense R.E.Regel nom. inval. Hordeum karzinianum R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum kiarchanum R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum laevipaleatum R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum lapponicum R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum leptostachys Griff. Hordeum macrolepis A.Braun Hordeum mandshuricum R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum mandshuroides R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum michalkowii R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum nekludowii R.E.Regel nom. inval. Hordeum nigrum Willd. Hordeum pamiricum Vavilov nom. inval. Hordeum parvum R.E.Regel nom. inval. Hordeum pensanum R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum polystichon Haller Hordeum praecox R.E.Regel nom. inval. Hordeum pyramidatum R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum revelatum (Körn.) A.Schulz Hordeum sativum Jess. nom. illeg. Hordeum sativum Pers. nom. inval. Hordeum scabriusculum R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum septentrionale R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum stassewitschii R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum strobelense Chiov. Hordeum taganrocense R.E.Regelnom. inval. Hordeum tanaiticum R.E.Regel nom. inval. Hordeum tetrastichum Stokes Hordeum transcaucasicumR.E.Regel nom. inval. Hordeum violaceum R.E.Regel nom. inval. Hordeum walpersii R.E.Regel nom. inval. Secale orientale Schreb. ex Rothnom. inval.