سرمق، سرمه، سرمک، بتهوای هندی، اسفاناخ رومی، قطف، شرنگ (!) بوته شوره، سرمق شاحب (کینوا)

[1] - سرمق . [ س َ م َ ] (معرب ، اِ) معرب سرمه ، نام تره که آن را به هندی بتهوا گویند. (غیاث ) (آنندراج ). شرنگ و آن گیاهی است پهن برگ ، خوردن دو درهم تخم سائیده ٔ آن سه هفته تریاق است مر استسقا را و اکثار آن مورث هلاکت . (منتهی الارب ). معرب از سرمج فارسی و آن قطف است . (تحفه ٔ حکیم مؤمن ). تعریب سرمک است . (شرفنامه ٔ منیری ). اسپاناخ . (الفاظ الادویه ). سرنگ . (مهذب الاسماء):
به دفع زهر به دانا نموده ای تریاق
به نفع طبع به بیمار داده ای سرمق .
انوری .

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شرنگ . [ ش َرَ ] (اِ) حنظل . (ناظم الاطباء). خربزه ٔ تلخ که آن را تلخک و کبست نیز گویند. به معنی اخیر منقول از زبان گویاست . (شرفنامه ٔ منیری ). خربزه ٔ تلخی باشد که در صحرا سبز شود و آن را به تازی حنظل خوانند. (فرهنگ جهانگیری ) (از غیاث اللغات ) (برهان ): سرمق ؛ شرنگ و آن گیاهی است پهن برگ ، خوردن دو درهم تخم سائیده ٔ آن سه هفته تریاق است مر استسقا را و کثار آن مورث هلاکت . (منتهی الارب ). حنظل و آن خربزه ٔ صحرایی است شبیه به دستنبوی مخطط و خرزهره نیز گویند. (انجمن آرا) (آنندراج ) (فرهنگ اوبهی ). قطف . (منتهی الارب) :
به روز بزم کند خوی تو ز حنظل شهد
به روز رزم کند خشم تو ز شهد شرنگ .
فرخی .

|| زهر و سم . (ناظم الاطباء) (انجمن آرا) (آنندراج ) (برهان ). زهر. (شرفنامه ٔ منیری) :
همه به تنبل و بند است بازگشتن او
شرنگ نوش آمیغ است و روی زراندود.

رودکی .

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قطف‌.  سرمق است و بشیرازی اسفاناخ رومی گویند بری و بستانی بود و طبیعت او سرد و تر بود در دویم و گویند سرد بود در اول و در وی قبضی بود و زود از شکم بگذرد و ورمهای گرم و جمره را نافع بود و تخم وی یرقان را سودمند بود و چون بپزند و اندکی بخورند شکم براند و چون پخته ضماد کنند ورمهای گرم را تحلیل دهد و این غذای نیکو بود و گرم جگر را نافع بود و محروری‌مزاج را احتیاج باصلاح آن نبود از بهر آنکه موافق ایشان بود خاصه چون با زیت بپزند و سرد مزاج را بعد از آنکه بپزند باید که بزیت بریان کنند و با زیره‌های گرم و مربی مطیب گردانند و بخورند و گویند معده را بد بود و مولد ریاح غلیظ بود و نفخ و اسحق بن عمران گوید تخم وی ورمهای گرم را نافع بود و اگر دو درم از وی بعسل و آب گرم بیاشامند قی مره صفرا آورد و شریف گوید چون تخم وی با همچندان نبات سحق کنند و کحل سازند جرب چشم را نافع بود و وی محلل ورمهای حلق بود و ملین سینه و تخم وی در غایت نهایت سودمند بود در شفای ورمهای ظاهر و باطن آنچه ظاهر بود بکوبند و به آب قطف تر کنند و طلا کنند و آنچه در باطن بود سحق کرده بیاشامند با اشربه یا سکنجبین و جلاب و گلاب وی دوای نیکو بود جهت استسقا چون سه هفته از وی بیاشامند در هر روز دو درم و چون ورق وی نیم‌کوفته در حمام بخود بمالند حکه را نافع بود و چون جامه ابریشم و حریر چرکن باب طبخ وی بشویند پاک گرداند و هیچ رنگ و لون نگرداند اما نوع بری وی چون بگیرند مقدار پنج درم بجوشانند در مقدار نود مثقال آب تا باز نیمه آید و صافی کنند و زنی را که مشیمه در شکم مانده بود بیاشامد اگر چند روز بود بیندازد و مجرب است

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صاحب مخزن الادویه می‌نویسد: قطف بفتح قاف و طا لغت عربی است و نیز سرمق نامند معرب از سلمه و یا سرمک و یا سرمه فارسی است و بسریانی قفطا و بیونانی افیلوکبیون و افکرکسیس و دیسقوریدوس اندرافکسیس و بقولی اطرافعس نامیده و بفارسی اسفناج رومی و بهندی پانک و بقول دیگر ککروهن و تبهوا نیز نامند و آن نباتی است بری و بستانی‌

اختیارات بدیعی، ص: 352

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بوته ‌شوره یا غازپایان^[۱] (نام علمی: Chenopodium) نام یک سرده از تیره تاج‌خروسیان است.

منابع[ویرایش]

1.       پرش به بالا↑ «آشنایی با کینوآ». همشهری آنلاین، ۴ فروردین ۱۳۹۴. بازبینی‌شده در ۳۰ ژوئیه ۲۰۱۵.

·         مشارکت‌کنندگان ویکی‌پدیا، «Chenopodium»، ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی، دانشنامهٔ آزاد (بازیابی در ۱۷ اکتبر ۲۰۱۴).

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السرمق^[1][2] (باللاتينية: Chenopodium) جنس يضم حوالي 150 نوعاً من النباتات البرية العشبية معظمها نباتات حولية مثل الزربيح الأبيضوبعضها مخشوشبة معمرة. كان قديماً يصنف ضمن الفصيلة السرمقية (باللاتينية: Chenopodiaceae) التي ضمت حديثاً كأسرة للفصيلة القُطَيفية(باللاتينية: Amaranthaceae)، من ثنائيات الفلقة.

محتويات

  [أظهر] 

أسماء مرادفة[عدل]

الزربيح أو رجل الإوز أو ركب الجمل أو الرمرام أو فساء الكلاب (وله أسماء أخرى كثيرة)^{[بحاجة لمصدر]}

من أنواعه الواطنة في الوطن العربي[عدل]

·         السرمق الأبيض (باللاتينية: Chenopodium album) في بلاد الشام

·         السرمق الأحمر (باللاتينية: Chenopodium rubrum) في بلاد الشام

·         السرمق تيني الأوراق (باللاتينية: Chenopodium ficifolium) في بلاد الشام

·         السرمق الجداري (باللاتينية: Chenopodium murale) في بلاد الشام

·         السرمق رباطي الأوراق (باللاتينية: Chenopodium opulifolium ) في بلاد الشام

·         السرمق الرمادي (باللاتينية: Chenopodium glaucum) دخيل في مصر والمغرب العربي وأصيل في أوروبا

·         السرمق المنتن (باللاتينية: Chenopodium vulvaria) في بلاد الشام

·         السرمق النافذي (باللاتينية: Chenopodium urbicum) في بلاد الشام

·         السرمق الورقي (باللاتينية: Chenopodium foliosum) في بلاد الشام

من أنواعه الأخرى[عدل]

·         السرمق الضيق (باللاتينية: Chenopodium strictum) في أوروبا

·         سرمق كينوا (باللاتينية: Chenopodium quinoa)

·         سرمق برلنديري (باللاتينية: Chenopodium berlandieri)

مراجع[عدل]

1.       ^ موقع الطبي. سرمق. تاريخ الولوج 29 نيسان 2013.

2.       ^ نظام معلومات النباتات السامة في سورية. السرمق الأبيض. تاريخ الولوج 29 نيسان 2013.

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به عبری:

כף האווז (שם מדעי: Chenopodium, שם מנוקד: כַּף הָאֲוָז) היא סוג צמח פורח ממשפחת הירבוזיים. הסוג מונה כ-150 מינים, בהם המין קינואה

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به ترکی آذری تره:

Tərə (lat. Chenopodium) — pəncərkimilər fəsiləsinə aid bitki cinsi.

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CHENOPODIUM.

The fruit and oil of Chenopodium ambrosioides anthelminticum, Linné (Nat. Ord.

Chenopodiaceae). Waste places throughout the United States.

Common Names: American Wormseed, Wormseed.

Principal Constituent.—A volatile oil, Oleum Chenopodii.

Preparation.—Oleum Chenopodii, Oil of American Wormseed. A colorless or pale

yellowish oil with the disagreeable odor and taste of wormseed. Dose, 5 to 10 drops.

Specific Indications.—Lumbricoid worms; hook-worm.

Action and Therapy.—A safe and certain vermifuge for the removal of the

lumbricoid or round worm (Ascaris lumbricoides). After proper

preparation, by fasting and purging, the powdered seeds (10 to 30 grains)

or the oil (10 drops) may be mixed with syrup or emulsion of acacia and

syrup, administered on an empty stomach, and followed by a saline Purge

or castor oil one or two hours afterward. The oil may be given in capsule

to older children and adults. It is not contraindicated by irritation of the

bowels. Oil of chenopodium has recently been found to be completely

effective in the removal.

Materia Medica

BY:

H. W. Felter

Published by:

www.medplant.ir

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Chenopodium is a genus of numerous species of perennial or annual herbaceous flowering plants known as thegoosefoots, which occur almost anywhere in the world.^[2] It is placed in the family Amaranthaceae in the APG II system; older classification systems, notably the widely used Cronquist system, separate it and its relatives asChenopodiaceae, but this leaves the rest of the Amaranthaceae polyphyletic. However, among the Amaranthaceae, the genus Chenopodium is the namesake member of the subfamily Chenopodioideae.

In Australia, the larger Chenopodium species are among the plants called "bluebushes". Chualar in California is named after a Native American term for a goosefoot abundant in the region, probably the California goosefoot(Blitum californicum).

Contents

  [show] 

Description[edit]

white goosefoot (Chenopodium album)

The species of Chenopodium (s.str., description according to Fuentes et al. 2012)^[1] are annual or perennial herbs, shrubs or small trees. They are nonaromatic, but sometimes foetid. The young stems and leaves are often densely covered by vesicular globose hairs, thus looking farinose. Characteristically, these trichomes persist, collapsing later and becoming cup-shaped. The branched stems grow erect, ascending, prostrate or scrambling. Lateral branches are alternate (the lowermost ones can be nearly opposite). The alternate or opposite leaves are petiolate. Their thin or slightly fleshy leaf blade is linear, rhombic or triangular-hastate, with entire or dentate or lobed margins.

Inflorescences are standing terminal and lateral. They consist of spicately or paniculately arranged glomerules of flowers. Plants are monoecious (rarelydioecious). In monoecious plants flowers are dimorphic, bisexual or pistillate. Flowers consist of (4–) 5 perianth segments connate. basally or close to the middle, usually membranous margined and with a roundish to keeled back; almost always 5 stamens, and one ovary with 2 stigmas.

In fruit, perianth segments become sometimes coloured, but mostly keep unchanged, somewhat closing over or spreading from the fruit. Pericarp membranous or sometimes succulent, adherent to or loosely covering the seed. The horizontally orientated seeds are depressed-globular to lenticular, with rounded to subacute margin. The black seed coat is almost smooth to finely striate, rugulose or pitted.

Uses and human importance[edit]

Cooked quinoa (C. quinoa) seeds

The genus Chenopodium contains several plants of minor to moderate importance as food crops as leaf vegetables – used like the closely relatedspinach (Spinacia oleracea) and similar plants called quelite in Mexico – andpseudocereals. These include white goosefoot (C. album), kañiwa (C. pallidicaule) and quinoa (C. quinoa). On the Greek island of Crete, tender shoots and leaves of a species called krouvida (κρουβίδα) or psarovlito(ψαρόβλητο) are eaten by the locals, boiled or steamed. As studied by Kristen Gremillion and others, goosefoots have a history of culinary use dating back to 4000 BC or earlier, when pitseed goosefoot (C. berlandieri) was a staple crop in the Native American eastern agricultural complex, and white goosefoot was apparently used by theErtebølle culture of Europe. The Proto-Indo-Europeans of the eastern Yamna culture also harvested white goosefoot as an apparent cereal substitute to round out an otherwise mostly meat and dairy diet c. 3500–2500 BCE.

There is increased interest in particular in goosefoot seeds today, which are suitable as part of a gluten-free diet. Quinoa oil, extracted from the seeds of C. quinoa, has similar properties, but is superior in quality, to corn oil. Oil of chenopodium is extracted from the seeds of epazote, which is not in this genus anymore. Shagreen leather was produced in the past using the small, hard goosefoot seeds. C. album was one of the main model organisms for themolecular biological study of chlorophyllase.

Goosefoot pollen, in particular of the widespread and usually abundant C. album, is an allergen to many people and a common cause of hay fever. The same species, as well as some others, have seeds which are able to persist for years in the soil seed bank. Many goosefoot species are thus significantweeds, and some have become invasive species.

Ecology[edit]

Certain species grow in large thickets, providing cover for small animals. Goosefoot foliage is used as food by the caterpillars of certain Lepidoptera. The seeds are eaten by many birds, such as the yellowhammer (Emberiza citrinella) of Europe or the white-winged fairy-wren (Malurus leucopterus) ofAustralia. Goosefoot pathogens include the positive-sense ssRNA viruses - apple stem grooving virus, sowbane mosaic virus and tobacco necrosis virus.

Systematics[edit]

The genus Chenopodium was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 (In: Species Plantarum, Vol. 1, p. 218–222). Type species is Chenopodium album. This generic name is derived from the particular shape of the leaf, which is similar to a goose's foot: from Greek χήν (chen), "goose" and πούς (pous), "foot" or ποδίον (podion), "little foot".

In its traditional circumscription, Chenopodium comprised about 170 species.^[2] Phylogenetic research revealed, that the genus was highly polyphyletic and did not reflect how species were naturally related. Therefore a new classification was necessary. Mosyakin & Clemants (2002, 2008) separated the glandular species as genus Dysphania and Teloxys in tribe Dysphanieae. Fuentes-Bazan et al. (2012) separated many species to genera Blitum (in tribeAnserineae), Chenopodiastrum, Lipandra, and Oxybasis (like Chenopodium in tribe Atripliceae). They included Rhagodia and Einadia in Chenopodium.^[1]

Selected species[edit]

ʻĀheahea (Chenopodium oahuense)

Chenopodium candolleanum

Chenopodium ficifolium

Chenopodium giganteum

·         Chenopodium acicularis ·         Chenopodium acuminatum Willd. ·         Chenopodium album – white goosefoot, nickel greens, dungweed, bathua, chandali, chandaliya, fat hen, lamb's quarters, pigweed ·         Chenopodium album ssp. amaranticolor ·         Chenopodium allanii ·         Chenopodium atrovirens – dark goosefoot, pinyon goosefoot ·         Chenopodium auricomiforme ·         Chenopodium auricomum – Queensland bluebush ·         Chenopodium baccatum (Syn. Rhagodia baccata) ·         Chenopodium berlandieri – pitseed goosefoot, southern huauzontle, lambsquarters ·         Chenopodium berlandieri ssp. nuttalliae (Saff.) H.D.Wilson & Heiser ·         Chenopodium berlandieri var. bushianum ·         Chenopodium berlandieri var. zschackii ·         Chenopodium bushianum – village goosefoot ·         Chenopodium candolleanum (Syn.: Rhagodia candolleana) ·         Chenopodium curvispicatum ·         Chenopodium cycloides ·         Chenopodium desertorum – desert goosefoot ·         Chenopodium desertorum ssp. anidiophyllum ·         Chenopodium desertorum ssp. desertorum ·         Chenopodium desertorum ssp. microphyllum ·         Chenopodium desertorum ssp. rectum ·         Chenopodium desertorum ssp. virosum ·         Chenopodium desiccatum – narrowleaf goosefoot ·         Chenopodium drummondii (Syn.: Rhagodia drummondii) ·         Chenopodium eremaea (Syn.: Rhagodia eremaea) ·         Chenopodium erosum R.Br. ·         Chenopodium ficifolium – fig-leaved goosefoot, small goosefoot ·         Chenopodium foggii – Fogg's goosefoot ·         Chenopodium fremontii – Fremont's goosefoot ·         Chenopodium giganteum D.Don – tree spinach ·         Chenopodium gigantospermum ·         Chenopodium hastatum (Syn.: Rhagodia hastata) ·         Chenopodium hians ·         Chenopodium iljinii ·         Chenopodium incanum – mealy goosefoot ·         Chenopodium latifolium (Syn.: Rhagodia latifolia) ·         Chenopodium leptophyllum – narrowleaf goosefoot

·         Chenopodium littoreum ·         Chenopodium missouriense – Missouri goosefoot (sometimes considered a variety of C. album) ·         Chenopodium neomexicanum ·         Chenopodium nevadense ·         Chenopodium nitrariaceum (F.Muell.) F.Muell. ex Benth.– nitre goosefoot ·         Chenopodium nutans (Syn.: Rhagodia nutans) ·         Chenopodium nuttalliae – huauzontle ·         Chenopodium oahuense – ʻĀheahea (Hawaiʻi) ·         Chenopodium opulifolium Schrad. ex W.D.J.Koch – grey goosefoot ·         Chenopodium pallescens ·         Chenopodium pallidicaule – kañiwa ·         Chenopodium pamiricum ·         Chenopodium parabolicum (Syn.: Rhagodia parabolica) ·         Chenopodium petiolare ·         Chenopodium polygonoides ·         Chenopodium pratericola Rydb. – pale goosefoot, desert goosefoot, narrowleaf goosefoot ·         Chenopodium preissii (Syn. Rhagodia preissii) ·         Chenopodium probstii Aellen ·         Chenopodium purpurascens – purple goosefoot ·         Chenopodium quinoa – quinoa ·         Chenopodium retusum ·         Chenopodium salinum – Rocky Mountain goosefoot ·         Chenopodium spinescens (Syn. Rhagodia spinescens) ·         Chenopodium standleyanum – Standley's goosefoot ·         Chenopodium strictum Roth ·         Chenopodium subglabrum – smooth arid goosefoot, smooth goosefoot ·         Chenopodium suecicum – green goosefoot ·         Chenopodium triandrum (Syn.: Rhagodia triandra) ·         Chenopodium trigonon (Syn.: Einadia trigonos) ·         Chenopodium truncatum ·         Chenopodium ulicinum ·         Chenopodium × variabile (C. album × C. berlandieri) ·         Chenopodium vulvaria – stinking goosefoot, notchweed ·         Chenopodium watsonii – Watson's goosefoot ·         Chenopodium wilsonii (Syn.: Rhagodia crassifolia)

Excluded species[edit]

·         Blitum (12 species):^[1]

·         Blitum bonus-henricus – Good King Henry, perennial goosefoot, poor-man's asparagus, Lincolnshire spinach, markery

·         Blitum californicum – California goosefoot, Indian lettuce

·         Blitum capitatum – strawberry blite, blite goosefoot, strawberry goosefoot, strawberry spinach, Indian paint, Indian ink

·         Blitum virgatum (Syn. Chenopodium foliosum) – leafy goosefoot

·         Chenopodiastrum (5 species):^[1]

·         Chenopodiastrum murale – nettle-leaved goosefoot

·         Chenopodiastrum simplex – giantseed goosefoot

·         Dysphania (about 43 glandular species, as C. botrys, C. carinatum, C. cristatum, C. melanocarpum, C. multifidium, C. pumilio and more)

·         Lipandra (one species):^[1]

·         Lipandra polysperma – many-seeded goosefoot

·         Oxybasis (5 species):^[1]

·         Oxybasis chenopodioides – small red goosefoot, saltmarsh goosefoot

·         Oxybasis glauca – oak-leaved goosefoot

·         Oxybasis rubra – red goosefoot, coastblite goosefoot

·         Oxybasis urbica – upright goosefoot

·         Teloxys (one species):

·         Teloxys aristata

·         Suaeda australis – austral seablite (as C. australe, C. insulare)

References[edit]

1.       ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f g} Susy Fuentes-Bazan, Pertti Uotila, Thomas Borsch: A novel phylogeny-based generic classification for Chenopodium sensu lato, and a tribal rearrangement of Chenopodioideae (Chenopodiaceae). In: Willdenowia. Vol. 42, No. 1, 2012, p. 5-24.

2.       ^ Jump up to:^a b Gelin Zhu, Sergei L. Mosyakin & Steven E. Clemants: Chenopodium - In: Wu Zhengyi, Peter H. Raven, Deyuan Hong (Hrsg.): Flora of China. Volume 5: Ulmaceae through Basellaceae. Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing/St. Louis 2003, ISBN 1-930723-27-X, p. 378-.

Chenopodium berlandieri
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Eudicots
(unranked):	Core eudicots
Order:	Caryophyllales
Family:	Amaranthaceae
Subfamily:	Chenopodioideae
Tribe:	Atripliceae
Genus:	Chenopodium L.
Species
see text
Synonyms[1]
·         Einadia Raf. ·         Rhagodia R.Br. ·         Vulvaria Bubani, nom. illeg ·         Chenopodium sect.Leprophyllum Dumort. ·         Chenopodium sect.Chenopodiastrum Moq.

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هم چنین کینوا یا سرمق شاحب عربی:

السرمق الشاحب (Chenopodium pallidicaule)، ويعرف أحيانًا باسم Cañihua وCanihua وKañiw وهو نوع من أنواع السرمق ويشابه في خصائصه واستخداماته لأحد الأنواع وثيقة الصلة به وهو الكينوا.

وله خصائص هامة ومفيدة منها: القدرة على تحمل الظروف على الجبال الشاهقة وارتفاع محتوى البروتين والقدرة العالية على مقاومة التأكسد كما أنه يحتوي على الفينول^[1][2] مع عدم وجود صابونين الذي يعقد استخدام الكينوا.

ولكن عملية تدجينه ليست كاملة، وعدم تماثله مع نضج الحبوب يمثل أحد القيود.

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کینو-آ گیاهی است که به خاطر دانه‌های خوراکی‌اش کاشته می‌شود. جزو غلات نیست و به خانواده اسفناج شباهت دارد. این گیاه در آمریکای جنوبی می‌روید و نحوه طبخ دانه‌های آن مشابه برنج است.

کینوا گیاه بومی کوه‌های آند در بولیوی، شیلی و پرو، بسیار خوش‌ هضم و منبع غنی از پروتئین، آهن، فسفر، انواع ویتامین‌ها و امگا3 است. این گیاه قدمتی بیش از پنج‌هزار سال دارد و اکنون نیز در آمریکای جنوبی در سطح وسیعی در حال کشت است. گیاه کینوا، گیاهی مقاوم به شرایط کم‌آبی و شوری است . میزان برداشت آن در هکتار با توجه به شرایط کشت دو تا شش تن میباشد.^[۱]

محتویات

  [نمایش] 

کینوآ در ایران[ویرایش]

در سال 1387، مؤسسه اصلاح تهیه نهال و بذر، با واردات بذر این گیاه تنها توانست عملکرد یک تن در هکتار داشته باشد که موفقیت‌آمیز نبود. در سال 2013 که سال کینوآ نامگذاری شده بود، فائو برخی ارقام این گیاه را به هشت کشور منتقل کرد که ایران یکی از این کشورها بود عملکرد چهار تنی در آب شیرین به‌دست آمد. در حال حاضر در ایران تلاش میشود کاشت این گیاه در مناطق شور صورت گرفته و افزایش عملکرد به دست آید.کینوآ به‌عنوان ماده غذایی مجاز برای افرادی که به گلوتن موجود در گندم حساسیت دارنداستفاده میشود و در حال حاضر از این گیاه برای تولید آرد، غنی کردن آرد، گندم، تولید بیسکوئیت و پاستا استفاده می‌شود.^[۲]

^[۳]

نگارخانه[ویرایش]

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Chenopodium quinoa -red faro- - Museum specimen

ارزش غذایی[ویرایش]

Quinoa, uncooked, per 100 g
مواد مغذی در هر ۱۰۰ گرم (۳٫۵ اونس)
انرژی	۱٬۵۳۹ کیلوژول (۳۶۸ کیلوکالری)
کربوهیدرات‌ها	۶۴ g
چربی	۶ g
چربی اشباع	۰٫۷ g
چربی تک‌اشباع‌نشده	۰٫۱٫۶ g
چربی چنداشباع‌نشده	۳٫۳ g
پروتئین	۱۴ g
آب	۱۳ g
ویتامین آی معادل	۱ میکروگرم (۰٪)
تیامین (ویتامین ب۱)	۰٫۳۶ میلی‌گرم (۲۸٪)
ریبوفلاوین (ویتامین ب۲)	۰٫۳۲ میلی‌گرم (۲۱٪)
نیاسین (ویتامین ب۳)	۱٫۵۲ میلی‌گرم (۱۰٪)
پانتوتنیک اسید (ویتامین ب۵)	۰٫۷۷ میلی‌گرم (۱۵٪)
ویتامین ب۶	۰٫۴۹ میلی‌گرم (۳۸٪)
اسید فولیک (ویتامین ب۹)	۱۸۴ میکروگرم (۴۶٪)
ویتامین ب۱۲	۰ میکروگرم (۰٪)
ویتامین C	۰ میلی‌گرم (۰٪)
ویتامین E	۲٫۴۴ میلی‌گرم (۱۶٪)
ویتامین K	۰ میکروگرم (۰٪)
کلسیم	۴۷ میلی‌گرم (۵٪)
آهن	۴٫۶ میلی‌گرم (۳۷٪)
منیزیم	۱۹۷ میلی‌گرم (۵۳٪)
فسفر	۴۵۷ میلی‌گرم (۶۵٪)
پتاسیم	۵۶۳ میلی‌گرم (۱۲٪)
روی	۳٫۱ میلی‌گرم (۳۱٪)
درصدها نسبی‌اند منبع: http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ منبع: پایگاه اطلاعاتی مواد غذایی آمریکا

منابع[ویرایش]

1.       پرش به بالا↑ استان خوزستان، میزبان نخستین کشت تحقیقی - ترویجی گیاه کینوا '

2.       پرش به بالا↑ تهیه بسته مدیریت تولید کینوآ با منابع آب شور در ایران '

3.       پرش به بالا↑ مشارکت‌کنندگان ویکی‌پدیا، «Quinoa»، ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی، دانشنامهٔ آزاد (بازیابی در ۲۷ اکتبر ۲۰۱۰).

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به عبری:

קינואה (שם מדעי: Chenopodium quinoa, ידוע גם ככף אווז הקינואה) הוא מין של כף האווז, צמח בעל פרחים השייך למשפחת הירבוזיים(Amaranthaceae). בעבר שויכה הקינואה למשפחת הסלקיים. לרוב, מיוחסת המילה קינואה לזרעיו של הצמח, המשווקים תחת שם זה כמזון. עליו של צמח הקינואה אכילים אף הם, אך אינם משווקים באותו היקף כזרעיו.

אף על פי שהקינואה משווקת כדגן, לצד זרעי שעורה, חיטה ותירס, היא אינה דגן אמיתי, היות שאינה שייכת למשפחת הדגניים, (בלבול זה השתרש גם לכוסמת, שאף היא משווקת כדגן ואינה נכללת במשפחת הדגניים). הקינואה כונתה דגן עוד בתקופת האינקה, ושימשה כדגן בדרום אמריקה.

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به ترکی استانبولی کینوا:

Kinoa, yenebilir tohumları için tarımı yapılan Chenopodioideae alt familyasından bitki. Tahıllara benzer yönleri olsa da Buğdaygillerden değildir, ıspanak ve pancar gibi bitkilere daha yakındır.

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Quinoa (/ˈkiːnoʊ.ə/, from Quechua kinwa or kinuwa )^[2] is a species of the goosefoot genus (Chenopodium quinoa), a grain crop grown primarily for its edible seeds. It is a pseudocereal, similar in some respects tobuckwheat, rather than a true cereal, as it is not a member of the true grass family. As a chenopod, quinoa is closely related to species such as beetroots, spinach and tumbleweeds. As a member of the Amaranthaceaefamily, it is related to and resembles amaranth, which is also a pseudocereal. After harvest, the seeds must be processed to remove the coating containing the bitter-tasting saponins. The seeds are in general cooked the same way as rice and can be used in a wide range of dishes. The leaves are eaten as a leaf vegetable, much like amaranth, but commercial availability of quinoa greens is limited.

The nutrient composition is favourable compared with common cereals. Quinoa seeds contain essential amino acids like lysine and acceptable quantities of calcium, phosphorus, and iron.^[3] It is high in protein, and is tolerant of dry soil. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) declared 2013 to be the International Year of Quinoa.^[4] Chenopodium formosanum is a Taiwanese variant of Red quinoa that isendemic to Taiwan, and is widely grown in Eastern and Southern Taiwanese Aboriginal cultures.

Quinoa originated in the Andean region of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia and Chile,^[5] and was domesticated 3,000 to 4,000 years ago for human consumption in the Lake Titicaca basin, though archaeological evidence shows a non-domesticated association with pastoral herding some 5,200 to 7,000 years ago.^[6]

Similar Chenopodium species, such as pitseed goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri) and fat hen (Chenopodium album), were grown and domesticated in North America as part of the Eastern Agricultural Complex before maize agriculture became popular.^[7] Fat hen, which has a widespread distribution in theNorthern Hemisphere, produces edible seeds and greens much like quinoa, but in smaller quantities.

Biology[edit]

Quinoa seeds

Quinoa plant before flowering

Chenopodium quinoa is a dicotyledonous annual plant usually about 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) high. It has broad, generally pubescent, powdery, smooth (rarely) to lobed leaves normally arranged alternately. The woody central stem is branched or unbranched depending on the variety and may be green, red or purple. The flowering panicles arise from the top of the plant or from leaf axils along the stem. Each panicle has a central axis from which a secondary axis emerges either with flowers (amaranthiform) or bearing a tertiary axis carrying the flowers (glomeruliform).^[8] The green hypogynous flowers have a simple perianth and are generally self-fertilizing.^[8][9] The fruits are about 2 mm (0.08 in) in diameter and of various colors—from white to red or black, depending on the cultivar.^[3]

Natural distribution[edit]

Chenopodium quinoa is believed to have been domesticated in the Peruvian Andes from wild or weed populations of the same species.^[10] There are non-cultivated quinoa plants (Chenopodium quinoa var.melanospermum) that grow in the area it is cultivated; these may either be related to wild predecessors, or they could be descendants of cultivated plants.^[11]

Saponin content[edit]

Red quinoa, cooked

In their natural state, the seeds have a coating of bitter-tasting saponins, making them unpalatable. Most of the grain sold commercially has been processed to remove this coating.^[12] This bitterness has beneficial effects during cultivation, as it is unpopular with birds and therefore requires minimal protection.^[13] The genetic control of bitterness involves quantitative inheritance; lowering the saponin content through selective breeding to produce sweeter, more palatable varieties is complicated by about 10% cross-pollination.^[14]

The toxicity category rating of quinoa saponins treats them as mild eye and respiratory irritants and as a low gastrointestinal irritant.^[15][16] The saponin is a toxic glycoside, a main contributor to its hemolytic effects when combined directly with blood cells. In South America, quinoa saponin has many uses, including as a detergent for clothing and washing and as an antiseptic for skin injuries.^[15] High levels of oxalic acid are in the leaves and stems of all species of the Chenopodium genus, and are also in the related genera of the Amaranthaceae family.^[17] The risks associated with quinoa are minimal, provided it is properly prepared and the leaves are not eaten to excess.

Nutritional value[edit]

Quinoa, cooked
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	503 kJ (120 kcal)
Carbohydrates	21.3 g
Sugars	0.87 g
Dietary fibre	2.8 g
Fat	1.92 g
Saturated	0.231 g
Monounsaturated	0.528 g
Polyunsaturated	1.078 g
Protein	4.4 g
Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv. lutein zeaxanthin	53 μg
Thiamine (B1)	(9%) 0.107 mg
Riboflavin (B2)	(9%) 0.11 mg
Niacin (B3)	(3%) 0.412 mg
Vitamin B6	(9%) 0.123 mg
Folate (B9)	(11%) 42 μg
Choline	(5%) 23 mg
Vitamin C	(0%) 0 mg
Vitamin E	(4%) 0.63 mg
Minerals
Calcium	(2%) 17 mg
Iron	(11%) 1.49 mg
Magnesium	(18%) 64 mg
Manganese	(30%) 0.631 mg
Phosphorus	(22%) 152 mg
Potassium	(4%) 172 mg
Sodium	(0%) 7 mg
Zinc	(11%) 1.09 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
·         Units ·         μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams ·         IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated usingUS recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Nutritional evaluations indicate that raw (uncooked) quinoa is a rich source of protein,dietary fiber, several B vitamins and dietary minerals, nutrients whose contents are substantially reduced by cooking (table).^[15][18] Analysis shows its protein is relatively high in essential amino acids.^[19]

Table of amino acids [20]
Amino Acids and protein in Quinoa
Essential Amino Acid	Quinoa mg/g protein
Methionine + Cystine	21
Lysine	51
Tryptophan	8
Valine	45
Threonine	30
Phenylalanine + tyrosine	74
Histadine	25
Isoleucine	37
Leucine	64

In a 100 g (3.5 oz) serving, cooked quinoa provides 120 calories and is a moderate source (10-19% of theDaily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, folate, and the dietary minerals, iron, zinc, magnesium, phosphorus, and manganese (table).

It is gluten-free and considered easy to digest. Because of these characteristics, it is being considered as a possible crop in NASA's Controlled Ecological Life Support System for long-duration human occupied space flights.^[21]

It has a notably short germination period: only 2–4 hours in water is enough to make it sprout, as opposed to 12 hours with wheat.^[22] This process softens the seeds, making them suitable for salads and other foods.

Cultivation[edit]

Climate requirements[edit]

Harvested quinoa seeds

The plant's growth is highly variable due to a high complexity of different subspecies, varieties and landraces (domesticated plants or animals adapted to the environment in which they originated). However, in general it is undemanding and altitude-hardy. It is grown from coastal regions to over 4,000 m (13,000 ft) in the Andes near the equator, with most of the cultivars being grown between 2,500 m (8,200 ft) and 4,000 m (13,000 ft). Depending on the variety, optimal growing conditions are in cool climates with temperatures that vary between −4 °C (25 °F) during the night to near 35 °C (95 °F) during the day. Some cultivars can withstand lower temperatures without damage. Light frosts normally do not affect the plants at any stage of development, except during flowering. Mid-summer frosts during flowering, often occurring in the Andes, lead to sterilization of the pollen. Rainfall conditions are highly variable between the different cultivars, ranging from 300 to 1,000 mm (12 to 39 in) during growing season. Growth is optimal with well-distributed rainfall during early growth and development and dry conditions during seed maturation and harvesting.^[8]

Quinoa has been cultivated in the United States, primarily in the high elevation San Luis Valley (SLV) ofColorado where it was introduced in 1982.^{[citation needed]} In this high-altitude desert valley, maximum summer temperatures rarely exceed 30 °C (86 °F) and night temperatures are about 7 °C (45 °F). Due to the short growing season, North American cultivation requires short-maturity varieties, typically of Bolivian origin.

Several countries within Europe, including France, England, Holland, Belgium, Germany and Spain now have successfully grown quinoa on a commercial scale.^[23] Within the UK, crops are grown as population and mechanically harvested in September.^[24]

Sowing[edit]

Quinoa plants do best in sandy, well-drained soils with a low nutrient content, moderate salinity, and a soil pH of 6 to 8.5.

The seedbed must be well prepared and drained to avoid waterlogging. In the Andes, the seeds are normally broadcast over the land and raked into the soil. Sometimes it is sown in containers of soil and transplanted later.

Cultivation management[edit]

Yields are maximised when 170 to 200 kg (370 to 440 lb) N/hectare is available.^{[citation needed]} The addition of phosphorus does not improve yield. In eastern North America, it is susceptible to a leaf miner that may reduce crop success and which also affects the common weed and close relative Chenopodium album, but C. album is much more resistant.

Harvesting and handling[edit]

Threshing quinoa in Peru

Quinoa grain is usually harvested by hand and rarely by machine, because the extreme variability of the maturity period of most Quinoa cultivars complicates mechanization. Harvest needs to be precisely timed to avoid high seed losses from shattering, and different panicles on the same plant mature at different times. The seed yield (often around 3 t/ha up to 5 t/ha) is comparable to wheat yields in the Andean areas. In the United States, varieties have been selected for uniformity of maturity and are mechanically harvested using conventional small grain combines. The plants are allowed to stand until they are dry^{[clarification needed]} and the grain has reached a moisture content below 10%. Handling involves threshing the seedheads and winnowing the seed to remove the husk. Before storage, the seeds need to be dried in order to avoid germination.^[8] Dry seeds can be stored raw until washed or mechanically processed to remove the pericarp to eliminate the bitter layer containing saponins.

History and culture[edit]

Early history[edit]

Quinoa was first domesticated by Andean peoples around 3,000 to 4,000 years ago.^[25] It has been an important staple in the Andean cultures where the plant is indigenous but relatively obscure in the rest of the world.^[26] The Incas, who held the crop to be sacred,^[27] referred to it as chisaya mama or "mother of all grains", and it was the Inca emperor who would traditionally sow the first seeds of the season using "golden implements".^[27] During theSpanish conquest of South America, the colonists scorned it as "food for Indians",^[28] and suppressed its cultivation, due to its status within indigenous religious ceremonies.^[29] The conquistadors forbade quinoa cultivation for a time^[30] and the Incas were forced to grow wheat instead.^[31]

Rising popularity and crop value[edit]

World Quinoa Production (thousand metric tons)
Country	1961	1970	1980	1990	2000	2010	2014
Peru	22.5	7.3	16.3	6.3	28.2	41.1	114.3
Bolivia	9.2	9.7	8.9	16.1	23.8	36.1	77.4
Ecuador	0.7	0.7	0.5	0.7	0.7	0.9	0.8
Total	32.4	17.7	25.8	23.0	52.6	78.1	192.5
Export price[32] USD/kg		$0.080	$0.492	$0.854	$1.254	$3.029
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) [33]

The grain has become increasingly popular in the United States, Canada, Europe, Australia, China and Japan where it is not typically grown, increasing crop value.^[34] Between 2006 and early 2013 quinoa crop prices tripled.^[35] In 2011, the average price was US$3,115 per ton with some varieties selling as high as $8,000 per ton.^[36] This compares with wheat prices of $9 per bushel (about $340 per ton). Since the 1970s, producers’ associations and cooperatives have worked toward greater producer control of the market. The higher prices make it harder for people to purchase, but also brings a livable income for farmers and enables many urban refugees to return to working the land.^[37]

The popularity of quinoa grain in non-indigenous regions has raised concerns over food security. Due to continued widespread poverty in regions where it is produced and because few other crops are compatible with the soil and climate in these regions, it has been suggested that the inflated price disrupts local access to food supplies.^[35] In 2013, The Guardian compared it to asparagus cultivated in Peru, a cash crop criticized for excessive water use,^[38] as "feeding our apparently insatiable 365-day-a-year hunger for this luxury vegetable[...]"^[35] It has been suggested that, as people rise above subsistence-level income, they choose higher-status Western processed foods. However, anthropologist Pablo Laguna states that farmers are still saving a portion of the quinoa crop for their own use, and that the high prices affect nearby city dwellers more, but consumption in cities has traditionally been lower. According to Laguna, the net benefit of increased revenue for farmers outweighs the costs, saying that it is "very good news for small, indigenous farmers".^[39] The transformation from a healthy staple food for farming families and communities into a product that is held to be worth too much to keep for oneself and one's family is an ongoing process. It is seen as a valuable resource that can bring in far greater amounts^{[clarification needed]} of cheap, low nutrient foods such as pasta and rice. It used to be seen as a peasant food that provided farming families with a very important source of nutrition, but now occupies a spectrum from an everyday food of urban Bolivia's middle class to a luxury food in the Peruvian capital of Lima where "it sells at a higher per pound price than chicken, and four times as much as rice".^[40] Efforts are being made in some areas to distribute it more widely and ensure that farming and poorer populations have access to it and have an understanding of its nutritional importance. These include incorporating it into free school breakfasts and in government provisions distributed to pregnant and nursing women in need.^[40]

Kosher controversy[edit]

Quinoa has become popular in the Jewish community as a substitute for the leavened grains that are forbidden during the Passover holiday. Severalkosher certification organizations refuse to certify it as being kosher for Passover, citing reasons including its resemblance to prohibited grains or fear of cross-contamination of the product from nearby fields of prohibited grain or during packaging.^[41]

In December 2013, the Orthodox Union, the world's largest kosher certification agency, announced it would begin certifying quinoa as kosher for Passover.^[42]

International Year of Quinoa[edit]

Logo of International Year of Quinoa 2013

The United Nations General Assembly declared 2013 as the "International Year of Quinoa" ^[43][44][45] in recognition of ancestral practices of the Andean people, who have preserved it as food for present and future generations, through knowledge and practices of living in harmony with nature. The objective is to draw the world’s attention to the role that quinoa could play in providing food security, nutrition and poverty eradication, in support of achievingMillennium Development Goals.

Gallery[edit]

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500 g bag of quinoa

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Quinoa

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Quinoa plants

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Quinoa flower

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Developing black quinoa seed

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Quinoa flakes

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Chenopodium quinoa -red faro- - MHNT

References[edit]

1.       Jump up^ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". Retrieved May 1,2014.

2.       Jump up^ Teofilo Laime Ajacopa, Diccionario Bilingüe Iskay simipi yuyayk'ancha, La Paz, 2007 (Quechua-Spanish dictionary)

3.       ^ Jump up to:^a b J. G. Vaughn & C. A. Geissler (2009). The new Oxford book of food plants. Oxford University Press.

4.       Jump up^ "International Year of Quinoa 2013". Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations. Retrieved 18 August 2015.

5.       Jump up^ Fuentes, F. F.; Martínez, E. A.; Hinrischen, P. V.; Jellen, E. N.; Maughan, P. J. (10 May 2008). "Assessment of genetic diversity patterns in Chilean quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) germplasm using multiplex fluorescent microsatellite" (PDF). Springer Science+Business Media. Retrieved14 February 2016.

6.       Jump up^ Kolata, Alan L. (2009). "Quinoa" (PDF). Quinoa: Production, Consumption and Social Value in Historical Context. Department of Anthropology, The University of Chicago.

7.       Jump up^ Smith, Bruce 1999 "The Emergence of Agriculture", W H Freeman & Co., New York. ISBN 0-7167-6030-4}

8.       ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Research Coun National Research Council (2005). The Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation.

9.       Jump up^ Reinhard Lieberei, Christoph Reissdorff & Wolfgang Franke (2007).Nutzpflanzenkunde. Georg Thieme Verlag.

10.    Jump up^ Barbara Pickersgill (August 31, 2007). "Domestication of Plants in the Americas: Insights from Mendelian and Molecular Genetics". Annals of Botany 100 (5): 925–40. doi:10.1093/aob/mcm193. PMC 2759216.PMID 17766847.

11.    Jump up^ Charles B. Heiser Jr. and David C. Nelson (September 1974). "On the Origin of the Cultivated Chenopods (Chenopodium)". Genetics 78 (1): 503–5.PMC 1213209. PMID 4442716.

12.    Jump up^ "How To Cook Quinoa, Easy Quinoa Recipe". Savvy Vegetarian. Retrieved 9 June 2012.

13.    Jump up^ "Quinoa". Alternative Field Crops Manual. University of Wisconsin Extension and University of Minnesota. January 20, 2000.

14.    Jump up^ Masterbroek, H.D.; Limburg, H.; Gilles, T.; Marvin, H. J. (2000). Occurrence of sapogenins in leaves and seeds of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd). New York, NY.: Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. pp. 152–156.doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(20000101)80:1<152::aid-jsfa503>3.0.CO;2-P.

15.    ^ Jump up to:^a b c Johnson DL, Ward SM (1993). "Quinoa". Department of Horticulture, Purdue University; obtained from Johnson, D.L. and S.M. Ward. 1993. Quinoa. p. 219-221. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York. Retrieved 21 May 2013.

16.    Jump up^ "Biopesticides Registration Action Document: Saponins of Chenopodium quinoa" (PDF). EPA. 2009.

17.    Jump up^ Siener, Roswitha; Honow, Ruth; Seidler, Ana; Voss, Susanne; Hesse, Albrecht (2006). Oxalate contents of species of the Polygonaceae, Amaranthaceae and Chenopodiaceae families. Food Chemistry, Volume 98 Issue 2. pp. 220–224. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.05.059. ISSN 0308-8146.

18.    Jump up^ "Nutrition Facts and Analysis of Quinoa, Cooked per 100 grams". Conde Nast for the US National Nutrient Database, Release 28.

19.    Jump up^ Ruales J, Nair BM (1992). "Nutritional quality of the protein in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa, Willd) seeds". Plant Foods Hum Nutr 42 (1): 1–11.doi:10.1007/bf02196067. PMID 1546052.

20.    Jump up^ Farnworth, Ted. "Quinoa - A Balanced Protein Source".www.medicinalfoodnews.com. Retrieved 2016-02-16.

21.    Jump up^ Greg Schlick and David L. Bubenheim (November 1993). "Quinoa: An Emerging "New" Crop with Potential for CELSS" (PDF). NASA Technical Paper 3422. NASA.

22.    Jump up^ "Anthocyanins Total Polyphenols and Antioxidant Activity in Amaranth and Quinoa Seeds and Sprouts During Their Growth" (PDF). researchgate.net. 12 January 2009. Retrieved 21 May 2013.

23.    Jump up^ "European Quinoa Group". www.quinoaeurope.eu. Retrieved 2015-12-27.

24.    Jump up^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x-1F7TrniyI, retrieved 2015-12-27Missing or empty |title= (help)

25.    Jump up^ Keppel, Stephen (March 4, 2012). "The Quinoa Boom Is a Lesson in the Global Economy". ABC Univision. Retrieved 16 March 2013.

26.    Jump up^ Keen, Benjamin; Haynes, Keith (2008). A History of Latin America. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. p. 32. ISBN 978-0618783182.

27.    ^ Jump up to:^a b Popenoe, Hugh (1989). Lost crops of the Incas: little-known plants of the Andes with promise for worldwide cultivation. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. p. 149. ISBN 0-309-04264-X.

28.    Jump up^ Gade, Daniel W. (1999). Nature and culture in the Andes. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 206. ISBN 0-299-16124-2.

29.    Jump up^ Bailey, Garrick Alan; Peoples, James (2009). Humanity: an introduction to cultural anthropology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. p. 120.ISBN 0-495-50874-8.

30.    Jump up^ Bernice Kagan; Meredith McCarty (1995). Fresh from a vegetarian kitchen. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 56. ISBN 0-312-11795-7.

31.    Jump up^ Andy Turnbull (2005). We need to talk: about the future of Canada. Toronto: Red Ear Pub. p. 23. ISBN 0-9681258-5-9.

32.    Jump up^ calculated from Export volume and value of FAOSTAT

33.    Jump up^ "FAOSTAT". FAO Statistics. Retrieved 2016-01-09.

34.    Jump up^ Collyns, Dan (14 January 2013). "Quinoa brings riches to the Andes". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 17 Jan 2013.

35.    ^ Jump up to:^a b c Blythman, Joanna (16 January 2013). "Can vegans stomach the unpalatable truth about quinoa?". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 17 Jan2013.

36.    Jump up^ Collyns, Dan (14 January 2013). "IQuinoa brings riches to the Andes". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 17 Jan 2013.

37.    Jump up^ Dan Collyns (14 January 2013). "Quinoa brings riches to the Andes". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 September 2013.

38.    Jump up^ "Despite Economic Gains, Peru's Asparagus Boom Threatening Water Table". PRI's The World. 2011-01-23. Retrieved 2013-01-17.

39.    Jump up^ Allison Aubrey (2013-06-07). "Your Love Of Quinoa Is Good News For Andean Farmers". NPR. Retrieved 2013-08-01.

40.    ^ Jump up to:^a b Tom Philpott. "Quinoa: Good, Evil, or Just Really Complicated?". Mother Jones. Retrieved 2013-11-24.

41.    Jump up^ "Jews divided by great Passover debate: Is quinoa kosher? | National Post". Life.nationalpost.com. 2013-03-25. Retrieved 2013-11-24.

42.    Jump up^ Nemes, Hody (December 23, 2013). "Quinoa Ruled Kosher for Passover". Forward. Retrieved 2014-02-07.

43.    Jump up^ United Nations (2012). Resolution adopted by the General Assembly(PDF).

44.    Jump up^ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2013).International Year of Quinoa.

45.    Jump up^ "International Years". United Nations. Retrieved 9 June 2012.

Further reading[edit]

·         Pulvento C., M. Riccardi, A. Lavini, R. d’Andria, & R. Ragab (2013). "SALTMED Model to Simulate Yield and Dry Matter for Quinoa Crop and Soil Moisture Content Under Different Irrigation Strategies in South Italy.". Irrigation and drainage 62: 229–238. doi:10.1002/ird.1727.

·         Cocozza C., C. Pulvento, A. Lavini, M.Riccardi, R. d’Andria & R. Tognetti (2012). "Effects of increasing salinity stress and decreasing water availability on ecophysiological traits of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.).". Journal of agronomy and crop science 199: 229–240. doi:10.1111/jac.12012.

·         Pulvento C, Riccardi M, Lavini A, d'Andria R, Iafelice G, Marconi E (2010). "Field Trial Evaluation of Two Chenopodium quinoa Genotypes Grown Under Rain-Fed Conditions in a Typical Mediterranean Environment in South Italy". Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science 196 (6): 407–411.doi:10.1111/j.1439-037X.2010.00431.x.

·         Pulvento, C., Riccardi, M., Lavini, A., Iafelice, G., Marconi, E. and d’Andria, R. (2012). "Yield and Quality Characteristics of Quinoa Grown in Open Field Under Different Saline and Non-Saline Irrigation Regimes". Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science 198 (4): 254–263. doi:10.1111/j.1439-037X.2012.00509.x.

·         Gómez-Caravaca, G. Iafelice, A. Lavini, C. Pulvento, M.Caboni, E.Marconi (2012). "Phenolic Compounds and Saponins in Quinoa Samples (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Grown under Different Saline and Non saline Irrigation Regimens". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 60 (18): 4620–4627. doi:10.1021/jf3002125. PMID 22512450.

·         Romero, Simon; Shahriari, Sara (March 19, 2011). "Quinoa’s Global Success Creates Quandary at Home". The New York Times. Retrieved July 22,2012.

·         Geerts S, Raes D, Garcia M, Vacher J, Mamani R, Mendoza J, Huanca R, Morales B, Miranda R, Cusicanqui J, Taboada C (2008). "Introducing deficit irrigation to stabilize yields of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)". Eur. J. Agron. 28 (3): 427–436. doi:10.1016/j.eja.2007.11.008.

·         Geerts S, Raes D, Garcia M, Mendoza J, Huanca R (2008). "Indicators to quantify the flexible phenology of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in response to drought stress". Field Crop. Res. 108 (2): 150–6. doi:10.1016/j.fcr.2008.04.008.

·         Geerts S, Raes D, Garcia M, Condori O, Mamani J, Miranda R, Cusicanqui J, Taboada C, Vacher J (2008). "Could deficit irrigation be a sustainable practice for quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in the Southern Bolivian Altiplano?". Agric. Water Manage 95 (8): 909–917.doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2008.02.012.

·         Geerts S, Raes D, Garcia M, Taboada C, Miranda R, Cusicanqui J, Mhizha T, Vacher J (2009). "Modeling the potential for closing quinoa yield gaps under varying water availability in the Bolivian Altiplano". Agric. Water Manage 96 (11): 1652–1658. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2009.06.020.

Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Eudicots
(unranked):	Core eudicots
Order:	Caryophyllales
Family:	Amaranthaceae
Subfamily:	Chenopodioideae
Genus:	Chenopodium
Species:	C. quinoa
Binomial name
Chenopodium quinoa Willd.
Natural distribution in red, Cultivation in green
Synonyms[1]
·         Chenopodium canihua Cook ·         Chenopodium ccoyto Toro Torr. ·         Chenopodium ccuchi-huila Toro Torr. ·         Chenopodium chilense Pers. nom. inval. ·         Chenopodium guinoa Krock. ·         Chenopodium nuttalliae Saff.