شکر، سکَّر. عسل القصب . سقخارن . معرب آن سُکَّر و فرانسه ٔ آن سوکر، عسل سنگی

[1] - سکَّر.  شکر. [ ش َ ک َ / ش َک ْ ک َ ] (اِ) سکَّر. عسل القصب . سقخارن . معرب آن سُکَّر و فرانسه ٔ آن سوکر. با شکر از یک اصل است ، و گاهی در نظم به تشدید کاف آید. و در تداول عموم به کسر «ش » است . ابوالشفاء. (یادداشت مؤلف ). عصیر بسیار شیرینی که از بعضی نباتات مانند نیشکر و چغندر استخراج میکنند و از آن قند و نبات و شربت و حلوا میسازند. (ناظم الاطباء). عصاره ٔ نباتی است مثل نی و بی تجویف که بعد از طبخ منعقد گردد، و آنرا برحسب مراتب نامهاست ، مثلاً هرگاه بی تصفیه باشد سکر احمر نامند و ترجمه ٔ آن بفارسی شکر سرخ بود و چون بار دیگر طبخ داده و صاف کرده در ظرفی ریزند که دُرد او جدا گردد سلیمانی خوانند و چون طبخ دیگر داده در قالب صنوبری ریزند فانیز گویند و اگر در طبخ ثالث مبالغه نموده باشند ابلوج و قند مکرّر نام باشدو هرگاه در قالب مستطیلی متساوی الطرفین ریزند مسمی گردد به قلم ، و چون طبخ دیگر داده در شیشه ریزند موسم شود به نبات قرازی ، و چون با آب طبخ داده با کفچه ٔبسیار بر هم زنند تا منعقد گردد و به ریسمان کشند به فانیز خزایی و سنجری تسمیه کنند و اکثر قسم صلب قند مکرر را مخصوص این قسم دانسته اند. و ناب و تر از صفات اوست و با لفظ نوشیدن و خاییدن و خوردن و شکستن و بستن مستعمل . (آنندراج ). چیزی باشد که قند و نبات و چیزهای دیگر از آن سازند. (برهان ). زراعت نیشکر درقدیم در سیستان و سلیمانیه مرسوم بوده است . عصیر شیرینی که از چغندرقند یا نیشکر گیرند و از آن قند و نبات و انواع شیرینی سازند و برای شیرین کردن چای و مواد دیگر بکار برند. (فرهنگ فارسی معین ).

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سکر

بپارسی شکر گویند و در منهاج مراد از سکرا بلوج است و بهترین وی آنست که سفید و شفاف بود و از طرف هندوستان آرند و چین و آن را قند خام خوانند طبیعت وی گرم است در آخر اول یا اول دوم و تر است در میانه اول و چون کهن گردد میل بخشکی داشته باشد و وی ملین بود و نافع بود بمعده بجلائی که در وی است و در جلا نزدیک بعسل بود و در عسل نحل تلیین بیشتر بود که در فانید و عسل شکر طبرزد تلیین در وی بیشتر بود که در عسل نحل و تلیین وی کمتر از تلیین عسل قصب بود شکر مصلح ریاحی بود که حادث شود در امعا و بطن و محلل طبیعت بود و مقوی معده و جگر بود و مقدار شربت از وی ده درم باشد و اگر با روغن بادام شیرین باشد منع قولنج بکند و کهن وی سودمند بود جهت بلغمی که در معده بود اما تشنگی آورد و خونی دردی آمیز که از وی متولد شود و صفرا برانگیزد و مصلح وی انار مر بود و شریف گوید چون با روغن گاو یا گوسفند بیاشامند احتباس بول را سودمند بود و چون ده درم از وی گداخته در بیست درم روغن گاو تازه نیم‌گرم بیاشامند درد ناف و اندرون سود دهد و زنانی که زائیده باشند از مواد پاک گرداند و به آب گرم آشامیدن و ادمان آن کردن سرفه را زایل کند و آواز بگشاید و نزله را سود دهد و سینه و شش را نیکو بود و نرم گرداند و خشونت مثانه زایل کند و موافق بود محرور و مبرود را باعتدالی که دارد و محتاج مصلح نبود و سده بگشاید و گرده را نافع بود و اگر بخور کنند قطع زکام بکند و جرب اجفان را نافع بود چون به پاره شکر حل کنند تا خون‌آلود شود و اگر احتیاج بود دیگربار مکرر کنند و اگر در داروی چشم کنند سفیدی ببرد و چون بپزند و کف از وی بگیرند تشنگی بنشاند و اولی بود کسی که در طبیعت لینتی داشته باشد یا سجح امعا از وی بسیار نخورد و حذر کند و گویند بدل وی آب آلوی سیاه بود و گویند مصلح به است و طباشیر و بدل آن مویز خراسانی بود

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صاحب مخزن الادویه می‌نویسد: سکر بضم سین و فتح کاف مشدده بفارسی شکر و بهندی سرکرا و شکر سرخ مایل به سیاهی را بوره ... نامند و ماهیت آن عصاره نیشکر است

لاتین ‌SACCHARUM COMMUNE  انگلیسی ‌SUGAR  فرانسه ‌SUCRE

اختیارات بدیعی، ص: 227

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28. نیشکر (Saccharum officinarum) نوعاً گیاهی هندی یا بهتر بگوییم از جنوب خاوری آسیا است، اما تاریخچه آن در ایران چنان اهمیت دارد که در اینجا چند سطری به آن اختصاص دهیم.  در سالنامه‌های سویی  شکر سخت (ši-mi     ، با معنای واژه به واژه ی  "عسل سنگی") و pan-mi     ("نیم‌عسل") را به ایران ساسانی و تسائو (جغتا) بسته اند.  روشن نیست دومی را باید چه نوع شکری دانست.   پیش از پیدایش شکر همه جا عسل را در شیرین کردن خوراکها شان کار می‌ گرفتند و از همینرومردمان باستان شکر را گونه ای عسل می‌دانستند که بی زنبور از نی فراهم آرند.   نام ši-mi نخستین بار در Nan fan ts'ao mu čwan  آمده؛ نیشکر هم نخستین بار در همین کتاب بازنمائی و محصول کیائوـ چی (Kiao-či) (تونکن) دانسته شده است؛ بر پایه این متن، بومیان این سرزمین شکر را ši-mi می‌نامند که چه بسا برگردان واژه به واژه ی  نام تونکنی آن باشد. در سال 285 ترسائی ، فوـ نان (Fu-nan) (کامبوج) ču-čö   ،("نیشکر") را چون خراج به چین فرستاد. 

گویا در دوره تانگ شکر را از ایران نیز به چـــــین می بردند، زیرا مــون شن (Mon Šen) که در نیمه دوم سده هفتم Ši liao pen ts'ao را نوشته است، می‌گوید شکری که از پوـ‌سه (ایران) به سه‌ـ‌چوان می‌آید نیکوست.  سوـ کون (Su Kun)، که پیرامون سال 650ترسائی به بازنگری در T'an pen ts'ao پرداخته، شکر وارداتی از سی ژون (Si Žun) را ستوده که باز هم می تواند اشاره به سرزمین های  ایرانی باشد.  در مورد ورود و پراکندگی نیشکر در ایران اطلاعات دقیق موجود نیست.  لیپمان  نظریه‌ای پرآب و تاب ساخته و پرداختـــــــه بر این پایه که بی گمان مسیحیان جندی‌شاپور، شهری که با هند در ارتباط بود و طب هندی در آنجا تدریس می‌شد، کشت نیشکر و صنعت تهیه شکر را در آنجا رواج داده اند. اینها همه گمانه زنی هائی است   بس هوشمندانه که هیچ سندی آن را تأیید نمی‌کند. دانسته‌ها در این مورد در همین حد است که مورخ ارمنی، موسی خورنی، در نیمه دوم سده پنجم نوشته است که نیشکر در المائیس در نزدیکی جندی شاپور کشت می‌شده، و اینکه نویسندگان عربی نویس بعد از او چون ابن حوقل، مقدسی و یاقوت به کشت نیشکر و تولید شکر در برخی بخشهای ایران اشاره کرده‌اند.  متن چینی پیشگفته از آن رو اهمیتی دارد که نشان می‌دهد شکر در سده ششم م. در دوران ساسانی شناخته بود. همچنان که مشهور است، عربها پس ازگشودن ایران (سال 640 ترسائی ) به صنعت تصفیه شکر علاقه فراوان نشان داده  آغاز به پراکندن کشت نیشکر در فلسطین، سوریه، مصر و سرزمین های  دیگر کردند. چینی‌ها در فن تولید شکرهیچ وامی به ایرانیان ندارند. در سال 647 ترسائی ، فغفور تایی تسون (T'ai Tsun)  مشتاق شد رموز تولید شکر را فراگیرد، و هیئتی را به ماگادها در هندوستان فرستاد تا فرایند جوشاندن شکر را بررسی کنند، و نیشکرکاران یان‌ـ‌چو (Yan-čou) این شیوه را بر گزیدند. رنگ و مزه  این فرآورده در آن روزگار برتر از گونه هندی بود.  مردانی از قاهره نزدیک پایان دوره مغول فن پالایش شکر را به چینی‌ها آموختند.

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31 (311) شُکّر^[1]، sukkar ، در فارسی شکر، šakar، شکّر،  šakker ، نیشکر، sugar cane ، شوگر şugar انگلیسی (Saccharm officinarum). در زبان پراکریتی و پالی شکّارا sakkharā ، در سنسکریت چارکره، çarkarā.

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45. آیا واژه تبّتی k‛a-ra برابر با khar در هندوستانی به معنای "شکر خام" نیست؟ از دید من واژه تبّتی ša-ka-ra از شکر، šakar فارسی است نه از واژه سنسکریت šarkarā . اگر واژه تبّتی از هند آمده بود، صورت sa-ka-ra می‌داشت. در پراکریتیِ درست، و در کلیه گویشهای بومیِ هندوآریاییِ امروز به استثنای بنگالی، š(ç) سنسکریت تبدیل به s می‌شود. واژه فارسی به شکل šakar در کشمیری تداول یافته و شاید از آنجا به تبّت رفته باشد.

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Yule, Marco Polo, Vol. II, pp. 226, 230. آخرین نویسنده‌ای که درباره موضوع شکر در ایران نوشته شوارتز (P. Schwarz, Der Islam, Vol. VI, 1915, pp. 269-279) است که پژوهشهای او به استان اهواز محدود می‌شد. برخلاف ریتر (C. Ritter) که بندر سیراف در کناره خلیج‌فارس را محلی می‌داند که نیشکر نخست از هند به آنجا برده و کاشته شد، این نقش را به هرمز می‌دهد؛ او نخستین اشاره به شکر تصفیه شده را در شعر شاعری عرب از سده هفتم یافته است. شوارتز از پژوهشهای منتشر شده لیپمان در این زمینه آگاه نبوده است.

از ساینو-ایرانیکا

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شکر

فرمول شیمیایی C12-H22-O11

تصویر درشت‌نمودهٔ دانه‌های شکر

مزرعه نیشکر

نیشکر بریده‌شده

شِکَر ماده‌ای است خوراکی و به صورت عام به تمامی مواد شیرین گفته می‌شود. شکر شامل گلوکز، فروکتوز، گالاکتوز است که در بسیاری از گیاهان، میوه‌ها و لبنیات وجود دارد.

از دانه‌های ریز بلوری به رنگ سفید و یا قهوه‌ای که بعنوان شکر یا کله‌قند یا فشرده مکعبی آن که به عنوان قند تشکیل شده‌است می‌شناسیم یک ماده فرآوری شده است که از عصارهٔ نیشکر و یا چغندر قند به دست می‌آید. به این صورت که قند موجود در نیشکر وچغندر قند بعد از جداسازی تمام املاح، ویتامین‌ها، پروتئین، آنزیم و سایر مواد مغذی مفید، در کارخانه تصفیه شده و به ساکاروز خالص تبدیل می‌شود. چیزی که بعد از فرایند باقی می‌ماند، مادهٔ مصنوعی غلیظ شده‌ای است که استفاده از آن نه تنها چندان فایده‌ای برای بدن انسان ندارد، بلکه مضراتی هم دارد.

محتویات

  [نمایش] 

تاریخچه[ویرایش]

نیشکر گیاه بومی جنوب شرق آسیا و جنوب آمریکاست. شکر در زمان باستان در شبه‌قاره هند اما در آن زمان عرضه آن به صورت گسترده و با قیمتی ارزان نبوده از همین رو عسل به عنوان شیرین کننده در اکثر نقاط جهان مورد استفاده قرار می‌گرفته است.

شربت حاصل از عصاره‌گیری از نیشکر یک نوشیدنی محلی و نامهم بود تا زمانی که در قرن پنجم میلادی هندیان توانستند با تهیه [کریستال] شکر از این شربت، حمل و نقل و نگهداری و تجارت آن را ممکن نمایند.

پس از کریستال‌سازی، به تدریج شکر در تهیه دسرها و شیرینی‌جات در چین و خاورمیانه به کار رفت. با این حال شکر تا قرت هجدهم میلادی همچنان در اروپا جز کالای لوکس و تجملی به حساب می‌آمد.^[۱]

ریشه واژه[ویرایش]

واژهٔ شکر در فارسی از واژهٔ sharkara در زبان سانسکریت گرفته شده‌است. سپس به صورت سکر از فارسی به عربی راه یافته و از عربی به زبان‌های اروپایی وارد شده‌است.^[۲]

در زبان هندی به کریستال «خاندا» گفته می‌شود که ریشه «قند» در فارسی و «Candy» در انگلیسی است.

پیوند به بیرون[ویرایش]

·         درباره شکر

منابع[ویرایش]

1.       پرش به بالا↑ ویکی انگلیسی، Suger

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بع عربی و مصری سکر:

السكر مادة تنتمي إلى فئة من الأطعمة تعرف باسم المواد الكربوهيدراتية وأشهرها سكر الطعام وهي نتاج للتركيب الضوئي الذي هو عملية صنع الغذاء في النباتات، وكثير منها يتم استخدامها في الغذاء. وهي الكربوهيدرات، ويتألف من الكربون والهيدروجين والأكسجين ويستخرج السكروز من بنجر السكر، وقصب السكر، ويستخدم على نطاق واسع كمادة محلِّية.

توجد السكريات في أنسجة معظم النباتات، ولكن موجودة في تركيز كافي لاستخراجها بكفاءة عالية فقط في قصب السكر وبنجر السكر وقصب السكر الذي يتم زراعته في المناطق الحارة في جنوب آسيا وجنوب شرق آسيا منذ العصور القديمة. حدث توسع كبير في إنتاجه في القرن الثامن عشر مع إنشاء مزارع قصب السكر في جزر الهند الغربية والأمريكتين. وكانت هذه هي المرة الأولى التي أصبح السكر متاحا للعامة والذي كان قد سبق إلى الاعتمادأن اعتمد على العسل لتحلية الأطعمة.

إنتاج السكر غير مجرى التاريخ البشري في نواح كثيرة، وأثر على تشكيل المستعمرات واستمرار العبودية والانتقال إلى العمل بالسخرة وهجرة الشعوب والحروب بين الدول للسيطرة على نسبة السكر في التجارة في القرن التاسع عشر وأثر على التركيبة العرقية والهيكل السياسي للعالم الجديد.

أنتج العالم حوالي 168 مليون طن من السكر في عام 2011. والشخص العادي يستهلك حوالي 24 كجم من السكر سنوياً (33.1 كيلوغرام في البلدان الصناعية)، أي ما يعادل أكثر من 260 سعرة حرارية غذائية للشخص الواحد في اليوم.

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به کردی شه کر:

شەکەر جۆرە مادەیەێکی خۆراکییەکە دانەگەلێکی وردی ھەیە و لە دوو ڕەنگی سپی و قاوەییدایە.^[١]

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به عبری:

סוכר הוא שם כולל לקבוצה של פחמימות אכילות בעלות טעם מתוק אופייני, ומבנה גבישי (סוכר פשוט, דו-סוכר), וכן שמו הרווח של הדו-סוכר סוכרוז. נהוג לקרוא בשם "סוכר" גם לחד-סוכרים ולדו-סוכרים מתוקים נוספים.

בסוכר נעשה שימוש רב הן בתעשיית המזון והן בתעשיית המשקאות, והוא מהווה מרכיב עיקרי בממתקים ובמשקאות קלים. תזונהעתירת סוכרים המוספים למזון נקשרה לבעיות בריאותיות שונות כגון סוכרת והשמנת יתר.

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به پنجابی شکر:

شکر یا چینی گنے یا چقندر توں بنائی جان والی اک مٹھی کرسٹل یا آٹے وانگوں بریک چیز اے اینوں کھان لیئی یا دوسری چیزاں نوں مٹھا کرن لئی ورتیا جاندا اے۔ گنے تے چقندر توں مگروں اے شہد پھلاں تے میپل چ وی ہندی اے۔ اینوں بعوتا کھان نال مٹاپا تے شوگر دا روگ وی لگ جاندا اے۔

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به سندی کند:

کنڊ خوردونوش شين کي شيريني ڏيڻ لاء استعمال ڪرڻ واري شيء آھي ۔ عام طور تي ڪمند مان کنڊ پيدا ڪرندا آھن ۔ پر ڪاجر ۽ ٻين قندن سان بہ کنڊ ٺاھيندا آھن ۔

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به اردو شکر:

شکّر اشیائے خوردونوش کو شیرینی دینے کے لئے استعمال کرنے والی چیز ہے ۔ عام طور پر گنّے سے شکّر پیدا کرتا ہے ۔ مگر گاجر اور دوسرے قندوں سے بھی شکّر بناتا ہے ۔

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به اویغوری: شی ک ر

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به ترکی ذری شِکِر:

Şəkər — müasir dövrdə ən çox yayılmış qida məhsuludur. Sənaye istehsalı üçün əsas xammal şəkər qamışı vəşəkər çuğunduru sayılır. Dünya üzrə 94-97 mln. t. şəkər istehsalının (xam şəkərə hesablandıqda) 56-60 mln. t. şəkər qamışının, 36-38 mln. t. şəkər çuğundurunun payına düşür.

Dünyada 1500 şəkər qamışı emal edən və təxminən 1000 şəkər çuğunduru emal edən (onlardan 800-dən çoxuAvropada yerləşir) zavod mövcuddur. Onların sayı daima dəyişir: yeni nəhəng müəssisələr tikilir, köhnəlmişləri, az məhsuldarlığı olanları bağlanılır.

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به ترکی استانبولی شکر:

Şeker veya sakkaroz çoğu bitkinin bünyesinde bulunur. Fakat bünyesinde ekonomik olarak şeker elde edilebilecek kadar şeker bulunduran iki bitki vardır: Şeker kamışı, Şeker pancarı.

Anavatanı Hindistan ve Arap ülkeleri olan şeker kamışı dünyada tropikal ve yarı tropikal bölgelerde yetiştirilmektedir. Türkiye'de şeker kamışı tarımı yapılmamaktadır. Bunun yerine iklim şartlarının uzgunluğundan ve ekonomik olmasından dolayı sadece Şeker pancarından şeker üretimi yapılmaktadır.

Şeker kamışının bünyesinde yaklaşık olarak %12-16 şeker bulunur.

Şekerin 1 gramının fiziksel olarak yanması sonucunda açığa çıkan enerji 16,8 kJ ya da 4,0 kcal'dir. Şekerin besin değerlerini diğer besinlerin değerleriyle karşılaştıracak olursak: örneğin 1 gram Alkolun yanması sonucunda 29,8 kJ, katı yağların yanmasıyla yaklaşık olarak gram başına 39 kJ enerji açığa çıkmaktadır. Bunun yanında şekerin özgül ağırlığı 1,6 g/cm³ olup suyun özgül ağırlığından (1 g/cm³) daha büyüktür. 20°C sıcaklığındaki 100 mL suyun içinde yaklaşık 203,9 g şeker çözülürken, 100°C sıcaklığında ki ve aynı miktardaki suda çözünebilen şeker miktarı sadece 487,2 g dir.^[1]

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Sugar is the generalized name for sweet, short-chain, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. They are carbohydrates, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are various types of sugar derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharidesand include glucose (also known as dextrose), fructose and galactose. The table or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide. (In the body, sucrose hydrolyses into fructose and glucose.) Other disaccharides include maltose and lactose. Longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides. Chemically-different substances may also have a sweet taste, but are not classified as sugars. Some are used as lower-calorie food substitutes for sugar described as artificial sweeteners.

Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants, but are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient extraction only in sugarcane and sugar beet.^{[citation needed]} Sugarcane refers to any of several species of giant grass in the genus Saccharum that have been cultivated in tropical climates in South Asia and Southeast Asia since ancient times. A great expansion in its production took place in the 18th century with the establishment of sugar plantations in the West Indies and Americas. This was the first time that sugar became available to the common people, who had previously had to rely on honey to sweeten foods. Sugar beet, a cultivated variety of Beta vulgaris, is grown as a root crop in cooler climates and became a major source of sugar in the 19th century when methods for extracting the sugar became available. Sugar production and trade have changed the course of human history in many ways, influencing the formation of colonies, the perpetuation of slavery, the transition to indentured labour, the migration of peoples, wars between sugar-trade–controlling nations in the 19th century, and the ethnic composition and political structure of the New World.

The world produced about 168 million tonnes of sugar in 2011. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms (53 lb) of sugar each year (33.1 kg in industrialised countries), equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, per day.

Since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, and tooth decay. Numerous studies have been undertaken to try to clarify the position, but with varying results, mainly because of the difficulty of finding populations for use as controls that do not consume or are largely free of any sugar consumption.

Contents

  [show] 

Etymology

Ant feeding on sugar crystals.

The etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word "sugar"^[1] originates from the Sanskrit शर्कराśarkarā,^[2] via Persian شکر shakkar. It most probably came to England by way of Italian merchants. The contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcarrespectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre – contemporary Frenchsucre. The earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις (sákkʰaris).^[3][4] A satisfactory pedigree explaining the spread of the word has yet to be done. The English word jaggery, a coarse brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin; Portuguese xagara or jagara, from the Sanskrit śarkarā.^[5]

History

Main article: History of sugar

Ancient times and Middle Ages

Sugar cane plantation

Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent^[6] since ancient times. It was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness. Sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia.^[7] Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. eduleand S. officinarum coming from New Guinea.^[7][8] One of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India.^[9]

Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store and to transport.^[10] Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD.^[10] In the local Indian language, these crystals were called khanda(Devanagari:खण्ड,Khaṇḍa), which is the source of the word candy.^[11]

Indian sailors, who carried clarified butter and sugar as supplies, introduced knowledge of sugar on the various trade routes they travelled.^[10] Buddhist monks, as they travelled around, brought sugar crystallization methods to China.^[12] During the reign of Harsha (r. 606–647) in North India, Indian envoys inTang China taught methods of cultivating sugarcane after Emperor Taizong of Tang (r. 626–649) made known his interest in sugar. China then established its first sugarcane plantations in the seventh century.^[13] Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 AD, to obtain technology for sugar refining.^[14] In South Asia, the Middle East and China, sugar became a staple of cooking and desserts.

The triumphant progress of Alexander the Great was halted on the banks of the Indus River by the refusal of his troops to go further east. They saw people in the Indian subcontinent growing sugarcane and making granulated, salt-like sweet powder, locally called Sharkara (Devanagari:शर्करा,Śarkarā), Latinsaccharum, Greek ζάκχαρι (zakkhari). On their return journey, the Macedonian soldiers carried the "honey-bearing reeds" home with them. Sugarcane remained a little-known crop in Europe for over a millennium, sugar a rare commodity, and traders in sugar wealthy.^[9]

Crusaders brought sugar home with them to Europe after their campaigns in the Holy Land, where they encountered caravans carrying "sweet salt". Early in the 12th century, Venice acquired some villages near Tyre and set up estates to produce sugar for export to Europe, where it supplemented honey, which had previously been the only available sweetener.^[15] Crusade chronicler William of Tyre, writing in the late 12th century, described sugar as "very necessary for the use and health of mankind".^[16] In the 15th century, Venice was the chief sugar refining and distribution centre in Europe.^[9]

Modern history

Still-Life with Bread and Confectionery, by George Flegel, first half of 17th century

See also: Triangular trade

See also: History of sugar

In August 1492, Christopher Columbus stopped at La Gomera in the Canary Islands, for wine and water, intending to stay only four days. He became romantically involved with the governor of the island, Beatriz de Bobadilla y Ossorio, and stayed a month. When he finally sailed, she gave him cuttings of sugarcane, which became the first to reach the New World.^[17]

The Portuguese took sugar to Brazil. By 1540, there were 800 cane sugar mills in Santa Catarina Island and there were another 2,000 on the north coast of Brazil, Demarara, and Surinam. The first sugar harvest happened in Hispaniola in 1501; and, many sugar mills had been constructed in Cuba and Jamaica by the 1520s.^[18]

Sugar was a luxury in Europe prior to the 18th century, when it became more widely available. It then became popular and by the 19th century, sugar came to be considered a necessity. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient unleashed major economic and social changes.^[19] It drove, in part, colonization of tropical islands and nations where labor-intensive sugarcane plantations and sugar manufacturing could thrive. The demand for cheap labor to perform the hard work involved in its cultivation and processing increased the demand for the slave trade from Africa (in particular West Africa). After slavery was abolished, there was high demand for indentured laborers from South Asia (in particular India).^[20][21][22] Millions of slave and indentured laborers were brought into the Caribbean and the Americas, Indian Ocean colonies, southeast Asia, Pacific Islands, and East Africa and Natal. The modern ethnic mix of many nations that have been settled in the last two centuries has been influenced by the demand for sugar.^[23][24][25]

Sugar also led to some industrialization of former colonies. For example, Lieutenant J. Paterson, of the Bengal establishment, persuaded the British Government that sugar cane could be cultivated in British India with many advantages and at less expense than in the West Indies. As a result, sugar factories were established in Bihar in eastern India.^[26]

During the Napoleonic Wars, sugar beet production increased in continental Europe because of the difficulty of importing sugar when shipping was subject to blockade. By 1880, the sugar beet was the main source of sugar in Europe. It was cultivated in Lincolnshire and other parts of England, although the United Kingdom continued to import the main part of its sugar from its colonies.^[27]

Until the late nineteenth century, sugar was purchased in loaves, which had to be cut using implements called Sugar nips.^[28] In later years, granulated sugar was more usually sold in bags.

Sugar cubes were produced in the nineteenth century. The first inventor of a process to make sugar in cube form was Moravian Jakub Kryštof Rad, director of a sugar company in Dačice. He began sugar cube production after being granted a five-year patent for the invention on January 23, 1843. Henry Tate ofTate & Lyle was another early manufacturer of sugar cubes at his refineries in Liverpool and London. Tate purchased a patent for sugar cube manufacture from German Eugen Langen, who in 1872 had invented a different method of processing of sugar cubes.^[29]

Chemistry

Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose (left) and fructose(right), important molecules in the body.

Sugar, granulated
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	1,619 kJ (387 kcal)
Carbohydrates	99.98 g
Sugars	99.91 g
Dietary fiber	0 g
Fat	0 g
Protein	0 g
Vitamins
Riboflavin (B2)	(2%) 0.019 mg
Minerals
Calcium	(0%) 1 mg
Iron	(0%) 0.01 mg
Potassium	(0%) 2 mg
Other constituents
Water	0.03 g
·         Units ·         μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams ·         IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated usingUS recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Sugars, brown
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	1,576 kJ (377 kcal)
Carbohydrates	97.33 g
Sugars	96.21 g
Dietary fiber	0 g
Fat	0 g
Protein	0 g
Vitamins
Thiamine (B1)	(1%) 0.008 mg
Riboflavin (B2)	(1%) 0.007 mg
Niacin (B3)	(1%) 0.082 mg
Vitamin B6	(2%) 0.026 mg
Folate (B9)	(0%) 1 μg
Minerals
Calcium	(9%) 85 mg
Iron	(15%) 1.91 mg
Magnesium	(8%) 29 mg
Phosphorus	(3%) 22 mg
Potassium	(3%) 133 mg
Sodium	(3%) 39 mg
Zinc	(2%) 0.18 mg
Other constituents
Water	1.77 g
·         Units ·         μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams ·         IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated usingUS recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Main article: Carbohydrate

Scientifically, sugar loosely refers to a number of carbohydrates, such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or oligosaccharides. Monosaccharides are also called "simple sugars," the most important being glucose. Almost all sugars have the formula C
nH
2nO
n (n is between 3 and 7).Glucose has the molecular formula C
6H
12O
6. The names of typical sugars end with -ose, as in "glucose" and "fructose". Sometimes such words may also refer to any types of carbohydratessoluble in water. The acyclic mono- and disaccharides contain either aldehyde groups or ketonegroups. These carbon-oxygen double bonds (C=O) are the reactive centers. All saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss of a molecule of water (H
2O) per bond.^[30]

Monosaccharides in a closed-chain form can form glycosidic bonds with other monosaccharides, creating disaccharides (such as sucrose) and polysaccharides (such as starch). Enzymes must hydrolyze or otherwise break these glycosidic bonds before such compounds become metabolized. After digestion and absorption the principal monosaccharides present in the blood and internal tissues include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Many pentoses and hexoses can form ring structures. In these closed-chain forms, the aldehyde or ketone group remains non-free, so many of the reactions typical of these groups cannot occur. Glucose in solution exists mostly in the ring form at equilibrium, with less than 0.1% of the molecules in the open-chain form.^[30]

Natural polymers of sugars

Biopolymers of sugars are common in nature. Through photosynthesis, plants produce glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), a phosphated 3-carbon sugar that is used by the cell to make monosaccharides such as glucose (C
6H
12O
6) or (as in cane and beet) sucrose (C
12H
22O
11). Monosaccharides may be further converted into structural polysaccharides such as cellulose and pectinfor cell wall construction or into energy reserves in the form of storage polysaccharides such as starch or inulin. Starch, consisting of two different polymers of glucose, is a readily degradable form of chemical energy stored by cells, and can be converted to other types of energy.^[30] Another polymer of glucose is cellulose, which is a linear chain composed of several hundred or thousand glucose units. It is used by plants as a structural component in their cell walls. Humans can digest cellulose only to a very limited extent, though ruminants can do so with the help of symbioticbacteria in their gut.^[31] DNA and RNA are built up of the monosaccharides deoxyribose and ribose, respectively. Deoxyribose has the formula C
5H
10O
4 and ribose the formula C
5H
10O
5.^[32]

Flammability

Sugars are organic substances that burn easily upon exposure to an open flame. Because of this, the handling of sugars presents a risk for dust explosion. The 2008 Georgia sugar refinery explosion, which resulted in 14 deaths, 40 injured, and more than half of the facility's destruction, was caused by the ignition of sugar dust.

Magnification of grains of refined sucrose, the most common free sugar

Types of sugar

Monosaccharides

Fructose, galactose, and glucose are all simple sugars, monosaccharides, with the general formula C₆H₁₂O₆. They have five hydroxyl groups (−OH) and a carbonyl group (C=O) and are cyclic when dissolved in water. They each exist as several isomers with dextro- and laevo-rotatory forms that cause polarized light to diverge to the right or the left.^[33]

·         Fructose, or fruit sugar, occurs naturally in fruits, some root vegetables, cane sugar and honey and is the sweetest of the sugars. It is one of the components of sucrose or table sugar. It is used as a high-fructose syrup, which is manufactured from hydrolyzed corn starch that has been processed to yield corn syrup, with enzymes then added to convert part of the glucose into fructose.^[34]

·         In general, galactose does not occur in the free state but is a constituent with glucose of the disaccharidelactose or milk sugar. It is less sweet than glucose. It is a component of the antigens found on the surface of red blood cells that determine blood groups.^[35]

·         Glucose, dextrose or grape sugar, occurs naturally in fruits and plant juices and is the primary product ofphotosynthesis. Most ingested carbohydrates are converted into glucose during digestion and it is the form of sugar that is transported around the bodies of animals in the bloodstream. It can be manufactured from starch by the addition of enzymes or in the presence of acids. Glucose syrup is a liquid form of glucose that is widely used in the manufacture of foodstuffs. It can be manufactured from starch by enzymatic hydrolysis.^[36]

Disaccharides

Lactose, maltose, and sucrose are all compound sugars, disaccharides, with the general formula C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁. They are formed by the combination of two monosaccharide molecules with the exclusion of a molecule of water.^[33]

·         Lactose is the naturally occurring sugar found in milk. A molecule of lactose is formed by the combination of a molecule of galactose with a molecule of glucose. It is broken down when consumed into its constituent parts by the enzyme lactase during digestion. Children have this enzyme but some adults no longer form it and they are unable to digest lactose.^[37]

·         Maltose is formed during the germination of certain grains, the most notable being barley, which is converted into malt, the source of the sugar's name. A molecule of maltose is formed by the combination of two molecules of glucose. It is less sweet than glucose, fructose or sucrose.^[33] It is formed in the body during the digestion of starch by the enzyme amylase and is itself broken down during digestion by the enzyme maltase.^[38]

·         Sucrose is found in the stems of sugarcane and roots of sugar beet. It also occurs naturally alongside fructose and glucose in other plants, in particular fruits and some roots such as carrots. The different proportions of sugars found in these foods determines the range of sweetness experienced when eating them.^[33] A molecule of sucrose is formed by the combination of a molecule of glucose with a molecule of fructose. After being eaten, sucrose is split into its constituent parts during digestion by a number of enzymes known as sucrases.^[39]

Sources

The sugar contents of common fruits and vegetables are presented in Table 1. All data with a unit of g (gram) are based on 100 g of a food item. The fructose/glucose ratio is calculated by dividing the sum of free fructose plus half sucrose by the sum of free glucose plus half sucrose.

Table 1. Sugar content of selected common plant foods (g/100g)[40]
Food Item	Total CarbohydrateA including "dietary fibre"	Total Sugars	Free Fructose	Free Glucose	Sucrose	Fructose/ Glucose Ratio	Sucrose as a % of Total Sugars
Fruits
Apple	13.8	10.4	5.9	2.4	2.1	2.0	19.9
Apricot	11.1	9.2	0.9	2.4	5.9	0.7	63.5
Banana	22.8	12.2	4.9	5.0	2.4	1.0	20.0
Fig, dried	63.9	47.9	22.9	24.8	0.9	0.93	0.15
Grapes	18.1	15.5	8.1	7.2	0.2	1.1	1
Navel orange	12.5	8.5	2.25	2.0	4.3	1.1	50.4
Peach	9.5	8.4	1.5	2.0	4.8	0.9	56.7
Pear	15.5	9.8	6.2	2.8	0.8	2.1	8.0
Pineapple	13.1	9.9	2.1	1.7	6.0	1.1	60.8
Plum	11.4	9.9	3.1	5.1	1.6	0.66	16.2
Vegetables
Beet, Red	9.6	6.8	0.1	0.1	6.5	1.0	96.2
Carrot	9.6	4.7	0.6	0.6	3.6	1.0	77
Corn, Sweet	19.0	6.2	1.9	3.4	0.9	0.61	15.0
Red Pepper, Sweet	6.0	4.2	2.3	1.9	0.0	1.2	0.0
Onion, Sweet	7.6	5.0	2.0	2.3	0.7	0.9	14.3
Sweet Potato	20.1	4.2	0.7	1.0	2.5	0.9	60.3
Yam	27.9	0.5	tr	tr	tr	na	tr
Sugar Cane		13 - 18	0.2 – 1.0	0.2 – 1.0	11 - 16	1.0	high
Sugar Beet		17 - 18	0.1 – 0.5	0.1 – 0.5	16 - 17	1.0	high

^A The carbohydrate figure is calculated in the USDA database and does not always correspond to the sum of the sugars, the starch, and the "dietary fibre".

Production

Sugar beet

A pack of sugar made of sugar beet.

Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) is a biennial plant^[41] in the Family Amaranthaceae, the tuberous root of which contains a high proportion of sucrose. It is cultivated in temperate regions with adequate rainfall and requires a fertile soil. The crop is harvested mechanically in the autumn and the crown of leaves and excess soil removed. The roots do not deteriorate rapidly and may be left in a clamp in the field for some weeks before being transported to the processing plant. Here the crop is washed and sliced and the sugar extracted by diffusion. Milk of lime is added to the raw juice and carbonatated in a number of stages in order to purify it. Water is evaporated by boiling the syrup under a vacuum. The syrup is then cooled and seeded with sugar crystals. The white sugar that crystallizes out can be separated in a centrifuge and dried. It requires no further refining.^[42]

Sugarcane

Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) is a perennial grass in the family Poaceae. It is cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical regions for the sucrose that is found in its stems. It requires a frost-free climate with sufficient rainfall during the growing season to make full use of the plant's great growth potential. The crop is harvested mechanically or by hand, chopped into lengths and conveyed rapidly to the processing plant. Here, it is either milled and the juice extracted with water or extracted by diffusion. The juice is then clarified withlime and heated to kill enzymes. The resulting thin syrup is concentrated in a series of evaporators, after which further water is removed by evaporation in vacuum containers. The resulting supersaturated solution is seeded with sugar crystals and the sugar crystallizes out and is separated from the fluid and dried. Molasses is a by-product of the process and the fiber from the stems, known as bagasse, is burned to provide energy for the sugar extraction process. The crystals of raw sugar have a sticky brown coating and either can be used as they are or can be bleached by sulfur dioxide or can be treated in a carbonatation process to produce a whiter product.^[43]

Refining

Sugars; clockwise from top-left:

White refined, unrefined,
brown, unprocessed cane

Refined sugar is made from raw sugar that has undergone a refining process to remove the molasses.^[44][45] Raw sugar is a sucrose which is synthesized from sugarcane or sugar beet and cannot immediately be consumed before going through the refining process to produce refined sugar or white sugar.^[46][47]

The sugar may be transported in bulk to the country where it will be used and the refining process often takes place there. The first stage is known as affination and involves immersing the sugar crystals in a concentrated syrup that softens and removes the sticky brown coating without dissolving them. The crystals are then separated from the liquor and dissolved in water. The resulting syrup is treated either by a carbonatation or by a phosphatation process. Both involve the precipitation of a fine solid in the syrup and when this is filtered out, many of the impurities are removed at the same time. Removal of colour is achieved by using either a granular activated carbon or an ion-exchange resin. The sugar syrup is concentrated by boiling and then cooled and seeded with sugar crystals, causing the sugar to crystallize out. The liquor is spun off in a centrifuge and the white crystals are dried in hot air and ready to be packaged or used. The surplus liquor is made into refiners' molasses.^[48] The International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis sets standards for the measurement of the purity of refined sugar, known as ICUMSA numbers; lower numbers indicate a higher level of purity in the refined sugar.^[49]

Unrefined sugar

Refined sugar is widely used for industrial needs for higher quality. Refined sugar is purer (ICUMSA below 300) than raw sugar (ICUMSA over 1,500).^[50] The level of purity associated with the colors of sugar, expressed by standard numberICUMSA (International Commission for Uniform Methods of sugar Analysis), the smaller ICUMSA numbers indicate that higher purity of sugar.^[50]

Producing countries

The five largest producers of sugar in 2011 were Brazil, India, the European Union, China and Thailand. In the same year, the largest exporter of sugar was Brazil, distantly followed by Thailand, Australia and India. The largest importers were the European Union, United States and Indonesia. At present, Brazil has the highest per capita consumption of sugar, followed by Australia, Thailand, and the European Union.^[51][52]

World sugar production (1000 metric tons)[51]
Country	2007/08	2008/09	2009/10	2010/11	2011/12
Brazil	31,600	31,850	36,400	38,350	35,750
India	28,630	15,950	20,637	26,650	28,300
European Union	15,614	14,014	16,687	15,090	16,740
China	15,898	13,317	11,429	11,199	11,840
Thailand	7,820	7,200	6,930	9,663	10,170
United States	7,396	6,833	7,224	7,110	7,153
Mexico	5,852	5,260	5,115	5,495	5,650
Russia	3,200	3,481	3,444	2,996	4,800
Pakistan	4,163	3,512	3,420	3,920	4,220
Australia	4,939	4,814	4,700	3,700	4,150
Other	38,424	37,913	37,701	37,264	39,474
Total	163,536	144,144	153,687	161,437	168,247

Forms and uses

Rock candy crystallized out of a supersaturated sugar solution

·         Brown sugars are granulated sugars, either containing residual molasses, or with the grains deliberately coated with molasses to produce a light- or dark-colored sugar. They are used in baked goods, confectionery, and toffees.^[53]

·         Granulated sugars are used at the table, to sprinkle on foods and to sweeten hot drinks, and in home baking to add sweetness and texture to cooked products. They are also used as a preservative to prevent micro-organisms from growing and perishable food from spoiling, as in candied fruits, jams, and marmalades.^[54]

·         Invert sugars and syrups are blended to manufacturers specifications and are used in breads, cakes, and beverages for adjusting sweetness, aiding moisture retention and avoiding crystallization of sugars.^[53]

·         Liquid sugars are strong syrups consisting of 67% granulated sugar dissolved in water. They are used in the food processing of a wide range of products including beverages, hard candy, ice cream, and jams.^[53]

·         Low-calorie sugars and sweeteners are often made of maltodextrin with added sweeteners. Maltodextrin is an easily digestible synthetic polysaccharide consisting of short chains of glucose molecules and is made by the partial hydrolysisof starch. The added sweeteners are often aspartame, saccharin, stevia, or sucralose.^[55]

·         Milled sugars (known as confectioner's sugar and powdered sugar) are ground to a fine powder. They are used as icing sugar, for dusting foods and in baking and confectionery.^[53]

·         Molasses is commonly used to make rum, and sugar byproducts are used to make ethanol for fuel.

·         Polyols are sugar alcohols and are used in chewing gums where a sweet flavor is required that lasts for a prolonged time in the mouth.^[56]

·         Screened sugars are crystalline products separated according to the size of the grains. They are used for decorative table sugars, for blending in dry mixes and in baking and confectionery.^[53]

·         Sugar cubes (sometimes called sugar lumps) are white or brown granulated sugars lightly steamed and pressed together in block shape. They are used to sweeten drinks.^[53]

·         Syrups and treacles are dissolved invert sugars heated to develop the characteristic flavors. (Treacles have added molasses.) They are used in a range of baked goods and confectionery including toffees and licorice.^[53]

·         In winemaking, fruit sugars are converted into alcohol by a fermentation process. If the must formed by pressing the fruit has a low sugar content, additional sugar may be added to raise the alcohol content of the wine in a process called chaptalization. In the production of sweet wines, fermentation may be halted before it has run its full course, leaving behind some residual sugar that gives the wine its sweet taste.^[57]

Consumption

In most parts of the world, sugar is an important part of the human diet, making food more palatable and providing food energy. After cereals and vegetable oils, sugar derived from sugarcane and beet provided more kilocalories per capita per day on average than other food groups.^[58] According to the FAO, an average of 24 kilograms (53 lb) of sugar, equivalent to over 260 food calories per day, was consumed annually per person of all ages in the world in 1999. Even with rising human populations, sugar consumption is expected to increase to 25.1 kilograms (55 lb) per person per year by 2015.^[59]

Data collected in multiple nationwide surveys between 1999 and 2008 show that the intake of added sugars has declined by 24 percent with declines occurring in all age, ethnic and income groups.^[60]

World sugar consumption (1000 metric tons)[61]
Country	2007/08	2008/09	2009/10	2010/11	2011/12	2012/13
India	22,021	23,500	22,500	23,500	25,500	26,500
European Union	16,496	16,760	17,400	17,800	17,800	17,800
China	14,250	14,500	14,300	14,000	14,400	14,900
Brazil	11,400	11,650	11,800	12,000	11,500	11,700
United States	9,590	9,473	9,861	10,086	10,251	10,364
Other	77,098	76,604	77,915	78,717	80,751	81,750
Total	150,855	152,487	153,776	156,103	160,202	163,014

The per capita consumption of refined sugar in the United States has varied between 27 and 46 kilograms (60 and 101 lb) in the last 40 years. In 2008, American per capita total consumption of sugar and sweeteners, exclusive of artificial sweeteners, equalled 61.9 kg (136 lb) per year. This consisted of 29.65 kg (65.4 lb) pounds of refined sugar and 31 kg (68.3 lb) pounds of corn-derived sweeteners per person.^[62][63]

Health effects

Some studies involving the health impact of sugars are effectively inconclusive. The FAO meta studies and WHO studies have shown directly contrasting impacts of sugar in refined and unrefined forms^[64] and since most studies do not use a population that do not consume any "free sugars" at all, the baseline is effectively flawed. Hence, there are articles such as Consumer Reports on Health that stated in 2008, "Some of the supposed dietary dangers of sugar have been overblown. Many studies have debunked the idea that it causes hyperactivity, for example".^[65]

Addiction

Main article: Sugar addiction

Sugar addiction is the term for the relationship between sugar and the various aspects of food addiction including "bingeing, withdrawal, craving and cross-sensitization". Some scientists assert that consumption of sweets or sugar could have a heroin addiction-like effect.^[66]

Alzheimer's disease

Claims have been made of a sugar–Alzheimer's disease connection, but debate continues over whether cognitive decline is attributable to dietary fructose or to overall energy intake.^[67][68]

Blood glucose levels

It used to be believed^[when?] that sugar raised blood glucose levels more quickly than did starch because of its simpler chemical structure. However, it turned out that white bread or French fries have the same effect on blood sugar as pure glucose,^{[citation needed]} while fructose, although a simple carbohydrate, has a minimal effect on blood sugar.^{[citation needed]} As a result, as far as blood sugar is concerned, carbohydrates are classified according to their glycemic index, a system for measuring how quickly a food that is eaten raises blood sugar levels, and glycemic load, which takes into account both the glycemic index and the amount of carbohydrate in the food.^[69] This has led to carbohydrate counting, a method used by diabetics for planning their meals.^[70]

Cardiovascular disease

Studies in animals have suggested that chronic consumption of refined sugars can contribute to metabolic and cardiovascular dysfunction. Some experts have suggested that refined fructose is more damaging than refined glucose in terms of cardiovascular risk.^[71] Cardiac performance has been shown to be impaired by switching from a carbohydrate diet including fiber to a high-carbohydrate diet.^[72] Switching from saturated fatty acids to carbohydrates with high glycemic index values shows a statistically-significant increase in the risk of myocardial infarction.^[73] Other studies have shown that the risk of developing coronary heart disease is decreased by adopting a diet high in polyunsaturated fatty acids but low in sugar, whereas a low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet brings no reduction. This suggests that consuming a diet with a high glycemic load typical of the "junk food" diet is strongly associated with an increased risk of developing coronary heart disease.^[74]

The consumption of added sugars has been positively associated with multiple measures known to increase cardiovascular disease risk amongst adolescents as well as adults.^[75] Studies are suggesting that the impact of refined carbohydrates or high glycemic load carbohydrates are more significant than the impact of saturated fatty acids on cardiovascular disease.^[76][77] A high dietary intake of sugar (in this case, sucrose or disaccharide) can substantially increase the risk of heart and vascular diseases. According to a Swedish study of 4301 people undertaken by Lund University and Malmö University College, sugar was associated with higher levels of bad blood lipids, causing a high level of small and medium low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and reduced high-density lipoprotein (HDL). In contrast, the amount of fat eaten did not affect the level of blood fats. Incidentally quantities of alcohol andprotein were linked to an increase in the good HDL blood fat.^[78]

Hyperactivity

There is a common notion that sugar leads to hyperactivity, in particular in children, but studies and meta-studies tend to disprove this.^[65] Some articles and studies do refer to the increasing evidence supporting the links between refined sugar and hyperactivity.^[79][80][81] The WHO FAO meta-study suggests that such inconclusive results are to be expected when some studies do not effectively segregate or control for free sugars as opposed to sugars still in their natural form (entirely unrefined) while others do.^[64] One study followed thirty-five 5-to-7-year-old boys who were reported by their mothers to be behaviorally "sugar-sensitive." They were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. In the experimental group, mothers were told that their children were fed sugar, and, in the control group, mothers were told that their children received a placebo. In fact, all children received the placebo, but mothers in the sugar expectancy condition rated their children as significantly more hyperactive.^[82] This result suggests that the real effect of sugar is that it increases worrying among parents with preconceived notions.

Obesity and diabetes

Controlled trials have now shown unequivocally that consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages increases body weight and body fat, and that replacement of sugar by artificial sweeteners reduces weight.^[83][84] Studies on the link between sugars and diabetes are inconclusive, with some suggesting that eating excessive amounts of sugar does not increase the risk of diabetes, although the extra calories from consuming large amounts of sugar can lead to obesity, which may itself increase the risk of developing this metabolic disease.^{[85][86][87][88][89][90]} Other studies show correlation between refined sugar (free sugar) consumption and the onset of diabetes, and negative correlation with the consumption of fiber.^{[91][92][93][94]} These included a 2010 meta-analysis of eleven studies involving 310,819 participants and 15,043 cases of type 2 diabetes.^[95] This found that "SSBs (sugar-sweetened beverages) may increase the risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes not only through obesity but also by increasing dietary glycemic load, leading to insulin resistance, β-cell dysfunction, and inflammation". As an overview to consumption related to chronic disease and obesity, the World Health Organization's independent meta-studies specifically distinguish free sugars ("all monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups and fruit juices") from sugars occurring naturally in food. The reports prior to 2000 set the limits for free sugars at a maximum of 10% of carbohydrate intake, measured by energy, rather than mass, and since 2002 have aimed for a level across the entire population of less than 10%.^[64] The consultation committee recognized that this goal is "controversial. However, the Consultation considered that the studies showing no effect of free sugars on excess weight have limitations".^[64]

Tooth decay

In regard to contributions to tooth decay, the role of free sugars is also recommended to be below an absolute maximum of 10% of energy intake, with a minimum of zero. There is "convincing evidence from human intervention studies, epidemiological studies, animal studies and experimental studies, for an association between the amount and frequency of free sugars intake and dental caries" while other sugars (complex carbohydrate) consumption is normally associated with a lower rate of dental caries.^[96] Lower rates of tooth decay have been seen in individuals with hereditary fructose intolerance.^[97]

Also, studies have shown that the consumption of sugar and starch have different impacts on oral health with the ingestion of starchy foods and fresh fruit being associated with low levels of dental caries.^[96]

Recommended dietary intake

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends ^[98] that both adults and children reduce the intake of free sugars to less than 10% of total energy intake. A reduction to below 5% of total energy intake brings additional health benefits, especially in what regards dental caries. These recommendations were based on the totality of available evidence reviewed regarding the relationship between free sugars intake and body weight and dental caries.

Free sugars include monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods and beverages by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices and fruit juice concentrates.^[98]

Measurements

Various culinary sugars have different densities due to differences in particle size and inclusion of moisture.

Domino Sugar gives the following weight to volume conversions (in United States customary units):^[99]

·         Firmly packed brown sugar 1 lb = 2.5 cups (or 1.3 L per kg, 0.77 kg/L)

·         Granulated sugar 1 lb = 2.25 cups (or 1.17 L per kg, 0.85 kg/L)

·         Unsifted confectioner's sugar 1 lb = 3.75 cups (or 2.0 L per kg, 0.5 kg/L)

The "Engineering Resources – Bulk Density Chart" published in Powder and Bulk gives different values for the bulk densities:^[100]

·         Beet sugar 0.80 g/mL

·         Dextrose sugar 0.62 g/mL ( = 620 kg/m^3)

·         Granulated sugar 0.70 g/mL

·         Powdered sugar 0.56 g/mL