شجره ابراهیم
پنجنکشت است بعضی آن را ام غیلان و جمعی شانج دانند مالیقی نوشته
که در فلاحه شجرۀ ابراهیم را عظیم و طویل و کثیر الشوک و پر برک و کل آن زرد و خوش
بو و آن را برم نامند و در صحراها و زمینهای خالی خشک بهم می رسد و کاه کل آن را در
لخالخ و خوشبوئیها می نمایند
مداخل مخزن الادویه عقیلی خراسانی
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پنج انگشت
نام علمی: vitexagnus castus
نام انگلیسی: monk,s pepper tree
نام آلمانی: monchspfeffer
نام فرانسوی: Gattilier
نام ایتالیایی:
نام عربی:
شجره ابراهیم
نام های مترادف :
Vitex integra
vitex latifolia
نام های محلی:
درخت لنگرو
دل آشوب
پاک دامن
تیره گیاه :
verbenaceae (شاه پسند)
زیرگونه :
ساختار شناسی :
درختچه ایی زیبا به ارتفاع تا 2 متر (گاهی
بلندتر)و چندساله.برگ ریز با بویی شبیه بوی فلفل.برگ ها پنجه ایی که از 5(گاهی تا7)برگچه
باریک و نوک تیز منشعب شده .از یک نقطه تشکیل میشوند که سطح تحتانی پوشیده از کرک و
سطح رویی سبزتیره میباشند.گلها بصورت گل آذین سنبله ایی به رنگ آبی مایل به بنفش و
میوه آن شفت و شبیه به فلفل میباشد.
مهمترین ترکیبات شیمیایی :
اسانس شامل آلفا پینن ،سینول،لیمونن و
...اسیدهای چرب و دی ترپن ها ،فلاونوئیدها و گلیکوزید.
خواص درمانی :
ضد درد-آنتی آندروژنیک-ضد پرولاکتین-ضدعفونی
کننده –افزایش دهنده قوای جنسی-افزایش
دهنده شیر-قاعده آور-ضدقارچ – آرام بخش و محرک افزایش پروژسترون
طرز استفاده :
100 گرم از میوه به نسبت 1 به 5 با آب
مخلوط شود
عوارض جانبی :
گاهی مصرف گیاه منجر به بروز خارش یا کهیر
شده است.افزایش وزن – تهوع – سوء هاضمه – افزایش خونریزی دوران قاعدگی و گیجی نیز
از عوارض احتمالی دیگر مصرف فراورده های گیاه است.
کاربرد در طب سنتی :
قابض – پادزهر سموم –روان کننده ادرار و خون قاعدگی
– افزایش دهنده شیر – ملین و گرم کننده است.نشستن در
جوشانده آن برای التهاب رحم و درد آن و درد مقعد مفید است.ضماد آن برای التهاب طحال
و میوه آن برای انسداد طحال مفید است .هفت برگ آن مسهل قوی است.
پراکندگی جهان :
نواحی مرکزی آسیا –مدیترانه-جنوب اروپا
پراکندگی جغرافیایی در ایران :
البرز – تهران – کرج – خراسان – خرمشهر – کازرون – خلیج فارس - قم
مکان رویش :
دوره رویش :
نحوه پرورش :
بخش موثر در اندام گیاه :
میوه رسیده و خشک گیاه
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پنج انگشت (نام علمی: Vitex agnus-castus) درختچه زیبایی
است به ارتفاع یک تا پنج متر که به علت گل‌های زیبایی که دارد گاه به عنوان گیاه تزئینی
کاشته می‌شود. از آن پنج انگشت گویند که برگ‌هایش پنجه‌ای و پنج تایی است. گل‌های آن
به رنگ آبی و شبیه سنبله‌ای دراز است که سپس تبدیل به گل می‌شود. این گیاه را فلفل
بیابانی نیز می‌نامند و در بسیاری از مناطق ایران می‌روید.[۱]
محتویات [نمایش]
تاریخچه[ویرایش]
در گذشته اعتقاد داشتند که این گیاه باعث
کاهش میل جنسی می‌شود و به همین دلیل در قرون وسطی راهبان روی برگهای این گیاه تفکر
می‌کردند و به همن دلیل نام دیگر این گیاه به پاکدامنی(chasteberry)مربوط می‌شود. با این
وجود امروزه مشخص شده است که این گیاه اثری بر میل جنسی ندارد. b[۲]
خواص دارویی[ویرایش]
میوه این گیاه قابض است و به بهبود عملکرد
دستگاه گوارش کمک می‌کند. افرادی که دچار بواسیر یا شقاق باشند می‌توانند از اثرات
درمانی آن سود بجویند و در جوشانده این گیاه بنشینند تا عارضه برطرف شود. ضماد میوه
و برگ آن ادرار را افزایش می‌دهد و مقدار زیاد آن برای کلیه مضر است. این گیاه در درمان
سر درد هم مفید است. این دارو جهت رفع اختلالات قاعدگی و یائسگی به کار می‌رود. پنج
انگشت، گیاه بسیار مؤثری برای درمان اختلالات قاعدگی است. از گیاه پنج انگشت، داروهایی
به نامهای ویتاگنوس (VITAGNUS)،
فمودین(Femodin) با مقدار ماده موثره
۲۰ میلی‌گرم در هر قرص و آگنوگل (Agnugol) تهیه کرده‌اند که عصاره خشک این گیاه میباشد. میوه این گیاه اثرات
درمانی زیادی برای رحم دارد. قاعدگی را تنظیم می‌کند و برگ این گیاه ورم‌های رحمی را
بهبود می‌بخشد و عفونت را پاک می‌سازد. فواید آن به قدری زیاد است که از این گیاه در
قرص‌های گیاهی مورد استفاده برای تنظیم قاعدگی و کاهش خونریزی استفاده می‌شود.[۱]
داروشناسی[ویرایش]
مکانیسم دقیق اثر این گیاه مشخص نیست ولی
مطالعات نشان داده است که این گیاه تحریک کننده(agonist) گیرنده‌های دوپامین
نوع دوم(D2) است و باعث کاهش ترشح
پرولاکتین می‌شود.[۳][۴] به نظر می‌رسد گیاه پنج انگشت با اثر بر محور هیپوتالاموس
ـ هیپوفیز اثر خود را اعمال می‌کند. این گیاه باعث کاهش آزاد شدن FSH* و افزایش آزاد شدن
LH** و پرولاکتین از هیپوفیز
می‌گردد. هورمون‌های FSH
و LH
در تولید استروژن (هورمون جنسی زنانه) از تخمدان‌ها و دوره تخمک گذاری
در خانم‌ها مؤثرند. مطالعات نشان داده است که گیاه پنج‌انگشت حاوی ترکیبات استروژنیک
نمی‌باشد و مستقیماً بر روی تخمدان‌ها تأثیر نمی‌گذارد.[۱] برخی مطالعات هم اثر این
گیاه بر گیرنده‌های اوپیوئیدی را نشان داده‌اند.[۵][۶]
منابع[ویرایش]
↑ پرش به بالا به: ۱٫۰ ۱٫۱ ۱٫۲ "گیاه پنج انگشت".
سایت تبیان.
پرش به بالا ↑ "Chasteberry: Benefits and
Side Effects".
پرش به بالا ↑ "Pharmacological activities
of Vitex agnus-castus extracts in vitro.".
پرش به بالا ↑ "Chaste tree (Vitex
agnus-castus)--pharmacology and clinical indications.".
پرش به بالا ↑ "Vitex agnus-castus (Chaste
Tree): Pharmacological and Clinical Data".
پرش به بالا ↑ "Activation of the μ-opiate
receptor by Vitex agnus-castus methanol extracts: Implication for its use in
PMS".
[نمایش] ن ب و
گیاهان دارویی و ادویه‌جات
رده‌ها: پنج‌انگشتدرختان اروپادرختان از
آب و هوای مدیترانه‌ایدرختان زینتیگیاگان مدیترانه‌ایگیاهان باغی اروپاگیاهان بر پایه
اقلیمگیاهان توصیف‌شده در ۱۷۵۳ (میلادی)گیاهان خوراک پروانهگیاهان داروییگیاهان دارویی
اروپاگیاهان و گرده‌افشان‌هانعناعیان
////////////
قس عربی:
كف مريم ( الاسم العلمي:Vitex agnus-castus)، هي شجيرة يصل طولها
من 2الى 4 أمتار سريعة النمو، كثيرة التفرع من القاعدة. أورقها كفية متساقطة رمادية
فضية وريقاتها 5-7 وريقات. أما أزهرها قمية متجمعة صغيرة جدا بيضاء. ثمارها سوداء صغيرة
بقطر نصف سم.
تستطيع الشجيرة أن تتحمل حرارة قدرها
40 -45 درجة مئوية، تتحمل الصقيع والتعرض لأشعة الشمس المباشرة. كما أنها جيدة التحمل
للجفاف والرياح.تحتاج إلى تربة رطبة عميقة جيدة الصرف وتتحمل الملوحة حتى
5.000-6.500جزء في المليون. تزرع للزينة في الحدائق والمنتزهات والشوارع وتصلح لعمل
الاسيجة يستخلص من هذا النبات مادة فعالة لأمراض العيون وأمراض المعدة. ويكون تكاثرها
بواسطة العقل والبذور.
محتويات [أظهر]
الموسم[عدل]
فصل الصيف
الخواص[عدل]
رائحته مقبوله طعمه مر حار يابس
الاستخدام الطبي[عدل]
يستخدم لادرار الطمث و علاح الصرع و الصداع
و هو كابح لجماحالشهوةالجنسية[بحاجة لمصدر]
مراجع[عدل]
الاشجار والشجيرات د.طارق القيعي
أيقونة بوابةبوابة علم النبات أيقونة بوابةبوابة
طب أيقونة بوابةبوابة صيدلة
مشاريع شقيقة شاهد في كومنز صور وملفات
عن: Vitex
agnus-castus
معرفات الأصنوفة
موسوعة الحياة: 579727 GBIF: 2925562
PlantList: kew-213297 Tropicos:
33700881 ITIS: 32221 ncbi: 54477
IPNO: 865568-1 GRIN: ps://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=41813
PLANTS: VIAG AFPD: 122518
ضبط استنادي
GND: 4488606-8
Melissa officinalis1.jpg هذه بذرة مقالة عن
نبات متعلقة بالفصيلة شفوية بحاجة للتوسيع. شارك في تحريرها.
تصنيفات: أشجار زينةأشجار مناخ البحر المتوسطحياة
نباتية في حوض البحر الأبيض المتوسطشفويةنباتاتنباتات الحدائق في أوروبانباتات حسب
المناخنباتات طبيةنباتات طبية في أوروبانباتات وصفت في 1753
//////////
قس آذری:
Ərküdə (lat. Vitex agnus-castus)[1] — viteks, ərküdə cinsinə aid bitki
növü.[2]
/////////
قس عبری:
שיח-אברהם מצוי (שם מדעי:
Vitex
agnus-castus), הוא מין השייך לסוג שיח אברהם הגדל בארצות הגובלות עם הים התיכון
ובהן ישראל. בישראל קיים מין נוסף בשם שיח-אברהם קיפח.
//////////
قس ترکی استانبولی:
Hayıt (Vitex
agnus-castus), mine çiçeğigiller (Verbenaceae) familyasından çok yıllık
tıbbi bitki türü.
1–3 m yükseklikte, çalı görünümünde, soluk pembe ya da mavi çiçeklidir
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Vitex agnus-castus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Vitex agnus-castus
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General form of a blossoming adult Vitex agnus-castus
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V. agnus-castus
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Vitex agnus-castus, also called vitex, chaste
tree, chasteberry, Abraham's balm,[1] lilac chastetree,[2] or monk's
pepper, is a native of the Mediterranean region. It is one of the few
temperate-zone species of Vitex, which is on the whole a
genus of tropical and sub-tropical flowering plants.[3] Theophrastus mentioned the shrub
several times, as agnos (άγνος) in Enquiry into Plants.[4] It has been long believed
to be an anaphrodisiac but its
effectiveness remains controversial. This is a cross-pollinating plant.
However self-pollination may also occur now
and then.[5]
Contents
[show]
Vitex, its name in Pliny the Elder, is derived from the Latin vieo,
meaning to weave or to tie up, a reference to the use of Vitex
agnus-castus in basketry.[6] Its macaronic specific name
repeats "chaste" in both Greek and
Latin, and considered to be sacred to the goddess Hestia/Vesta.
Confusion
with Vitex on the part of early settlers in the West Indies
may have given to Ricinus communis the name
"Castor-oil plant".[7] Or the name
"castor oil" might have come from its use as a replacement for castoreum.[8]
The
controlled cultivation of medicinal plants like vitex agnus-castus gains
increasing importance due to the modern quality standards and safety
regulations such as GMP, that are required
practices in order to conform to the guidelines recommended by agencies that
control authorization and licensing for manufacture and sale of inter alia drug
products, and GACP (Good Agricultural
And Collection Practice), that is a guideline to ensure appropriate and
consistent quality of medicinal plant respectively herbal substances.[9][10] Only one variety of
monks pepper, namely the variety “Agnuzell 440” that is optimized for medicinal
use, is registered (as of April 2009) with CPVO, a system of plant
variety rights.[11] But the controlled
cultivation is economically not satisfactory regarding the yield.[9]
This
plant could also be reproduced vegetatively. One possibility is to
use 5–8 cm long piece of the ripening wood with buds in July or August and
another is to cut the ripe wood in November and then let it root in a cold box.[5] Also in vitro
reproduction with spike of the shoots or node explants is possible.[12]
Vitex
agnus-castus is
widely cultivated in warm temperate and subtropical regions for its
delicate-textured aromatic foliage and butterfly attracting[13] spikes of lavender
flowers in late summer in cooler climates. It grows to a height of 1–5 meters.
It requires full sun or partial shade along with well-drained soil. Under ideal
conditions it is hardy to -10 degrees F USDA Zone 6, and can be found
on the south shore of Long Island and Nantucket on the East Coast of North America and in the
southwest of England.[14]
This
plant is inter alia a brackish water habitant.
Consequently, it is salt tolerant to a certain level. Cold and wet weather
results to high yield loss of Monks pepper. The plant grows well on loamy
neutral to alkaline soil.[5] The monks pepper
fruits from one single tree can be harvested for more than 15 years. This
indicate that the monks pepper can’t be integrated in a usual crop rotation system.[5][15] Though, it is
suggested to have legumes as its previous
crop for nitrogen supply for the monks pepper in young stage. Besides, it is
suggested to sow dissimilar plants such as monocots as its subsequent
crop so that it might be easier to control the monks pepper plant, the dicot. Because the fruits of
monks pepper tend to fall constantly and uncontrollably, it is likely that the
plant can grow as weed again.[5]
It
is said that at a row spacing of 180 cm the overall best yield per hectare
can be achieved if the plant spacing is around 70 cm.[5]
Pinching
out the tips of branches has no significant influence on growth, branching and
number of shoots. Pruning back the branches
in autumn has a positive influence on fruit yield while a re-pruning in spring
can induce an increase of vegetative shoot and thus to tremendous fruit yield
loss.[5]
The
flowering and ripening process is not simultaneously. At the other hand it
enables to get fresh fruits respectively seeds over a long span of time.
Additionally, the ripe fruit tend to fall down unpredictably and may get lost.
Thus, there is no optimal fixed harvest time. Consequently, to avoid yield loss
unripe fruits need to be harvested. This too early harvesting has no effect on
quality.[5] Overall it is said
that harvesting the fruits by hand is the most convenient solution.[15]
Thysanoptera or widely known
as Thrips can cause great
damage to the growth and the generative development of Vitex agnus
castus.[16] The insect feeds on
Chastetree by sucking up the contents or puncturing them. As well Chastetree is
the only known host (especially in Israel) for the bug insect called Hyalesthus
obsoletus. This cicada is the vector for Black wood disease of grapevines. Hyalesthus
obsoletus prefers V. agnus castus more as a host than
the grapevine. In this case Chastetree can be used as a biological control
agent by planting it around vineyards to trap the Hyalesthus obsoletus. [17] V. agnus-castus was
found not only to be an appropriate food source for the adult vectors, but also
a reservoir of Candidatus Phytoplasma solani (bacterial Phytoplasma species),
the casual agent of the Black wood disease in grapevines.[18] The
pathogen-caused leaf spot disease can almost
defoliate V. agnus castus. Furthermore root rot can occur, when
soils are kept too moist.[19]
Flavonoids (vitexin, casticin), iridoid glycoside (agnuside, aucubin),[20] p-hydroxybenzoic acid,[21] alkaloids, essential oils, fatty oils, diterpenoids and steroidal hormone precursors
have been identified in the chemical analysis of Vitex agnus-castus.[22] They occur in the
fruits and in the leaves.[20]
Essential
oils have been found in the fruits and in the leaves. The oil of leaves, unripe
and ripe fruits differ in compounds. 50 compounds were identified in the oil of
unripe fruits, 51 compounds in the oil of ripe fruits and 46 compounds in the
oil of the leaves. 1,8-cineole and sabinene are the main monoterpene components
and beta-caryophyllene is the major sesquiterpene compound found in
the fruits of Vitex agnus-castus.[23] Other important
chemical compounds are: limonene, alpha- and beta-pinene, trans-beta-farnesene.[20] There are some
slight differences between fruits from white flowering plants and such from
violet flowering ones. The oil of fruits of white flowering plants have a
higher amount of monoterpene constituents. The content of mono- and
sesquiterpene was nearly the same for both oils.[23] The leaves mainly
contain 1,8-cineole, trans-beta-farnesene, alpha-pinene,
trans-beta-caryophyllene and terpine-4-ol. All essential oils found in Vitex
agnus-castus have an antimicrobial effect. Antifungal effects are
slightly higher compared to antibacterial effects.
Antibacterial activity is higher in oils coming from white flowering plants
than from such of violet flowering plants.[20][23][24]
Agni
casti fructus (ripe, dried fruits) is a pharmaceutical drug made out of Vitex
agnus-castus. Albania and Morocco are the main export countries. The fruits
are wildly collected (wild grafting). There are three other types of drugs
of Vitex agnus-castus fruits: Vitex agnus-castus hom. HAB1
(ripe, dried fruits), Agnus castus hom PFX (dried fruits) and Agnus castus hom.
HPUS88 (fruits). The smell of ground fruits is aromatic, sage-like whereas the
taste is spicy, pepper-like. The drug Vitex agnus-castus hom. HAB1 is a round,
up to 5 mm big, red-brown to dark fruit. In the middle it is often yellow.
It contains 4 fruit compartments with one seed per compartment. A minimum of
0.4% of essential oil is required. Viticis folium (dried leaves) is another
drug which is produced from Vitex agnus-castus. The whole drug
consists of lanceolate leaves with tomentose under and hairless upper sides.[20]
Vitex,
also a traditional plant in Africa, is a little-known fruit
plant that has potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster
rural development and support sustainable landcare.[25]
The
leaves and tender stem growth of the upper 10 cm (3.9 in), along with
the flowers and ripening seeds, are harvested for alternative medicinal
purposes. The berries are harvested by gently rubbing the berries loose from
the stem. The leaves, flowers, and/or berries may be consumed as a decoction, traditional tincture, cider vinegar tincture,
syrup, elixir, or simply eaten
straight off the plant as an alternative medicinal food.[26] A popular way of
taking Vitex is on awakening as a simple 1:1 fluid extract, which is said to
interact with hormonal circadian rhythms most effectively.[27]
In alternative medicine, it is believed
the berries are a tonic herb for both the male and
female reproductive systems. The leaves are
believed to have the same effect but to a lesser degree.[26][27]
In
ancient times it was believed to be an anaphrodisiac, hence the name chaste
tree. Pliny, in his Historia Naturalis, reports the use of
stems and leaves of this plant by women as bedding "to cool the heat of
lust" during the time of the Thesmophoria, when Athenian women
left their husbands' beds to remain ritually chaste. At the end of the
thirteenth century John Trevisa reports of it
"the herbe agnus-castus is always grene, and the flowre therof is namly
callyd Agnus Castus, for wyth smel and vse it maketh men chaste as a
lombe".[28] Chaucer, in "The Flower and the Leaf," refers to it as
an attribute of the chaste Diana, and in the 16th century
the English herbalist William Turner reports the same
anaphrodisiac properties of the seed, both fried and not fried. More recently,
this plant has been called monk's pepper in the thought that
it was used as anti-libido medicine by monks to aid their attempts to remain
chaste. There are disputed accounts regarding its actual action on libido, with
some claims that it is anaphrodisiac and others that it is aphrodisiac. Because of the complex
mechanism of action it can be probably both, depending on concentration of the
extract and physiologic variables (see below).
According
to the Mayo Clinic’s ‘Book of Alternative Medicine’, 2010, second edition, ch.3
pg. 51: under ‘Chasteberry’ it says: “There’s no evidence it reduces sexual
desire.”
Close up of
vitex-agnus-castus-flowers with carpenter bee (Xylocopa sp.)
Clinical
studies have demonstrated effectivness of standardised and controlled
medications produced from extract of the plant in the management of premenstrual stress syndrome (PMS),[29][30][31] and cyclical breast
pain (mastalgia).[32] The medication is
recommended in Germany.[33][34]
It
is believed that some of the compounds found in the plant work on the pituitary gland which would explain
its effects on hormonal levels. A study has
shown that extracts of the fruit of VAC can bind to opiate receptors; this
could explain why intake of VAC reduces PMS discomforts.[35]
The
mechanism of action is not fully understood[36] but it is assumed
that it has dopaminergic effects resulting
in changes of prolactin secretion. At low
doses, such as might have been used in previous centuries for suppression of sexual
desire, it inhibits activation of dopamine 2 receptor by competitive binding,
causing a slight increase in release of prolactin. In higher concentrations, as
in modern extracts, the binding activity is sufficient to reduce the release of
prolactin. A study has found that treatment of 20 healthy men with higher doses
of Vitex agnus-castus was associated with a slight reduction
of prolactin levels, whereas
lower doses caused a slight increase as compared to doses of placebo.[37] A decrease of
prolactin will influence levels of Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and estrogen in women ;[citation needed] and testosterone in men .[citation needed] Dopaminergic
compounds (diterpenes with
prolactin-suppressive effects that were almost identical in their prolactin-suppressive properties
to dopamine itself) present in Vitex agnus castus seem
likely to be the clinically important compounds which improve
premenstrual mastodynia and possibly also
psycho-somatic symptoms of PMS.[38]
Vitex
agnus-castus is
used to alleviate symptoms of various gynecological problems. All evidence is
limited to standardised controlled extracts such as used in Germany, different
extracts or herbal mixes may have significantly different properties and safety
issues. Some of the modern uses include premenstrual syndrome, abnormal uterine
bleeding disorders and mastodynia.
No
specific clinical studies but use partially supported by clinical evidence on
symptoms and mechanism of action:
Emerging
uses (with very early evidence):
·
Prostate disorders, Rarely
used,[41][42] but given its mode
of action theoretically interesting,[43][44]
It
is recommended that Vitex agnus-castus be avoided during
pregnancy due to the possibility of complications.[33][46]
Historical
uses, uses outside the scope of medicine.
·
Galactagogue, historical usage in
very low concentrations and not advisable today.[47] However, one recent
study did find "Oral administration of 70 mg/kg/day of Vitex agnus-castus
extract in lactation stages, significantly increased serum prolactin, compared
with the control group of rats."[48]
2.
Jump up^ "Vitex
agnus-castus". Natural Resources
Conservation Service PLANTS Database. USDA. Retrieved 6
August 2015.
3.
Jump up^ David J. Mabberley.
2008. Mabberley's Plant-Book third edition (2008). Cambridge
University Press: UK.
5.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h Verein für Arznei-
und Gewürzpflanzen Saluplanta. 2013. Handbuch des Arznei- und
Gewürzpflanzenbaus volume 5 Arznei- und Gewürzpflanzen L-Z, pages
192-199. Verein für Arznei- und Gewürzpflanzen Saluplanta: Bernburg,
Germany. ISBN 978-3-935971-64-5 (set).
6.
Jump up^ Umberto
Quattrocchi. 2000. CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names volume
I, page 91. CRC Press: Boca Raton; New York; Washington,DC;, USA. London,
UK. ISBN 978-0-8493-2673-8 (set).
9.
^ Jump up to:a b Chaanin A.
2014. "Der kontrollierte
Anbau von Vitex agnus-fascastus–Chancen und Risiken". Julius-Kühn-Archiv. 446:
16. doi:10.5073/jka.2014.446.004
(inactive 2017-01-10).
11.
Jump up^ Verein für Arznei-
und Gewürzpflanzen Saluplanta. 2009. Handbuch des Arznei- und
Gewürzpflanzenbaus volume 1 Grundlagen des Arznei- und
Gewürzpflanzenbaus I page 617. Verein für Arznei- und Gewürzpflanzen
Saluplanta: Bernburg, Germany. ISBN 978-3-935971-54-6 (set).
12.
Jump up^ Balaraju K.
Agastian P. Preetamraj J.P. Arokiyaraj S. Kade P. Ignacimuthu S. 2008.
(2008). "Micropropagation of
Vitex agnus-castus, (Verbenaceae)—a valuable medicinal plant". In Vitro Cellular
& Developmental Biology - Plant. 44 (5): 436–441. doi:10.1007/s11627-008-9155-9.
13.
Jump up^ Soule, J.A. 2012.
Butterfly Gardening in Southern Arizona. Tierra del Soule Press, Tucson, AZ
14.
Jump up^ United States
Department of Agriculture. "Vitex Agnus-Castus
Profile". Retrieved 15 July 2012.
15.
^ Jump up to:a b van Rensen I.
2010. (2011). "Mönchspfeffer". Z Phytother. 31 (6):
322–326. doi:10.1055/s-0030-1262410.
16.
Jump up^ Gimpl A. 2003.
Untersuchungen zur Inkulturnahme von Vitex agnus-castus L. Diplomarbeit.
Universität für Bodenkultur. Wien
17.
Jump up^ Sharon, R.
Soroker V. Wesley SD. Zahavi T. Harari A. (2005). "Weintraub PG. Vitex
agnus-castus is a preffered host plant for hyalesthes
obsoletus". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 31:
1051–1063. doi:10.1007/s10886-005-4247-z.
18.
Jump up^ Kosovac, A.
Radonji S. Hrnci S. Krstic O. Tosevski I. Jovic J. (2016). "Molecular
tracing of the transmission routes of bois noir in Mediterranean vineyards of
Montenegro and experimental evidence for the epidemiological role of Vitex
agnus-castus (Lamiaceae) and associated Hyalesthes obsoletus
(Cixiidae)". Plant Pathology. 65: 285–298. doi:10.1111/ppa.12409.
19.
Jump up^ Gilman E. and
Watson D. 1994. Vitex agnus-castus ‘Alba’; ‘Alba’ Chastetree Fact Sheet ST-665.
A series of the Environmental Horticulture Department. Florida Cooperative
Extension Service. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. University of
Florida
20.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e Hager H. (2013).
Hänsel R.; et al., eds. Hagers Handbuch der Pharmazeutischen Praxis:
Drogen P-Z Folgeband 2. Springer-Verlag. pp. 1183–1196. ISBN 978-3-642-57881-6.
21.
Jump up^ Hoberg, Eva;
Meier, Beat; Sticher, Otto (2000). "An analytical high performance liquid
chromatographic method for the determination of agnuside and p-hydroxybenzoic
acid contents in Agni-casti fructus". Phytochemical Analysis. 11 (5):
327–329. doi:10.1002/1099-1565(200009/10)11:5<327::aid-pca523>3.0.CO;2-0.
22.
Jump up^ Hajdú,
Zsuzsanna; Judit Hohmann; Peter Forgo; Tamás Martinek; Máté Dervarics; István
Zupkó; György Falkay; Daniel Cossuta; Imre Máthé. "Diterpenoids and
flavonoids from the fruits of Vitex agnus-castus and antioxidant activity of
the fruit extracts and their constituents". Wiley InterScience.
Retrieved 2007-11-11.
23.
^ Jump up to:a b c Senatore F.
Napolitano F. Ozcan Dung M. (2003). "Chemical composition and
antibacterial activity of essential oil from fruits of Vitex agnus-castus L.
(Verbenaceae) growing in Turkey". Journal of Essential Oil Bearing
Plants. 6:3: 185–190.
24.
Jump up^ Stojkovic D.
Sokovic M. Glamoclija J. Dzamic A. Ristic M. Grubisic D. (2011). "Chemical
composition of antimicrobial activity of Vitex agnus-castus L. fruits and
leaves essential oils". Food Chemistry. 128:
1017–1022. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.04.007.
25.
Jump up^ National
Research Council (2008-01-25). "Chocolate
Berries". Lost Crops of Africa:
Volume III: Fruits. Lost Crops of Africa. 3.
National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-10596-5.
Retrieved 2008-07-17.
26.
^ Jump up to:a b Hartung, T.,
2000. Growing 101 Herbs That Heal. Storey Books. ISBN 1-58017-215-6
27.
^ Jump up to:a b Chevallier, A.,
2000. Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 0-7894-6783-6
28.
Jump up^ Trevisa, quoted
in The New English Dictionary; the misconnection of agnus,
for agnos with agnus "lamb" is
misleading: "it has nothing to do with the Latin agnus, a
lamb," Alice M. Coats notes (Coats, Garden Shrubs and Their
Histories [1964] 1992, s.v. "Vitex").
29.
^ Jump up to:a b Wuttke, W; Jarry
H; Christoffel V; Spengler B; Seidlová-Wuttke D. (May 2003). "Chaste tree
(Vitex agnus-castus)--pharmacology and clinical indications". Exp
Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 10 (4): 348–57. doi:10.1078/094471103322004866. PMID 12809367.
30.
^ Jump up to:a b Schellenberg, R.
(20 January 2001). "Treatment for the
premenstrual syndrome with agnus castus fruit extract: prospective, randomised,
placebo controlled study". British Medical Journal. 322 (7279):
134–7. doi:10.1136/bmj.322.7279.134. PMC 26589
. PMID 11159568.
. PMID 11159568.
31.
^ Jump up to:a b Berger, D;
Schaffner W; Schrader E; Meier B; Brattström A (November 2000). "Efficacy
of Vitex agnus castus L. extract Ze 440 in patients with pre-menstrual syndrome
(PMS)". Arch Gynecol Obstet. 264 (3): 150–3. doi:10.1007/s004040000123. PMID 11129515.
32.
^ Jump up to:a b Carmichael, A.
R. (2008). "Can Vitex Agnus
Castus be Used for the Treatment of Mastalgia? What is the Current
Evidence?". Evidence-based complementary and
alternative medicine : eCAM. 5 (3): 247–250. doi:10.1093/ecam/nem074. PMC 2529385. PMID 18830450.
. PMID 18830450.
33.
^ Jump up to:a b c Daniele, C;
Thompson Coon, J; Pittler, M. H.; Ernst, E (2005). "Vitex agnus castus: a
systematic review of adverse events". Drug Safety. 28 (4):
319–32. doi:10.2165/00002018-200528040-00004. PMID 15783241.
34.
Jump up^ Axel Valet; Kay
Goerke; Joachim Steller (2003). Klinikleitfaden Gynäkologie Geburtshilfe.
Untersuchung. Diagnostik. Therapie. Notfall. Urban & Fischer. ISBN 3-437-22211-2.
35.
Jump up^ Webster, D. E.;
Lu, J; Chen, S. N.; Farnsworth, N. R.; Wang, Z. J. (2006). "Activation of
the μ-opiate receptor by Vitex agnus-castus methanol extracts: Implication for
its use in PMS". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 106 (2):
216–221. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.12.025. PMID 16439081.
36.
Jump up^ "Opioidergic
mechanisms underlying the actions of Vitex agnus-castus L.", Biochemical Pharmacology. 2011 Jan 1;81(1):170-7
Authors: Webster DE, He Y, Chen SN, Pauli GF, Farnsworth NR, Wang ZJ
37.
Jump up^ Merz, PG; Gorkow
C; Schrödter A; Rietbrock S; Sieder C; Loew D; Dericks-Tan JS; Taubert HD
(1996). "The effects of a special Agnus castus extract (BP1095E1) on
prolactin secretion in healthy male subjects". Exp Clin Endocrinol
Diabetes. 04 (6): 447–53. doi:10.1055/s-0029-1211483. PMID 9021345.
38.
Jump up^ Wuttke, W; et
al. (May 2003). "Chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus)--pharmacology and
clinical indications". Phytomedicine. 10 (4):
348–57. doi:10.1078/094471103322004866. PMID 12809367.
39.
^ Jump up to:a b Cunningham, J.;
Yonkers, K. A.; O'Brien, S.; Eriksson, E. (2009). "Update on Research
and Treatment of Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder". Harvard Review of
Psychiatry. 17 (2): 120–137. doi:10.1080/10673220902891836. PMC 3098121. PMID 19373620.
. PMID 19373620.
40.
Jump up^ Kilicdag, E.;
Tarim, E.; Bagis, T.; Erkanli, S.; Aslan, E.; Ozsahin, K.; Kuscu, E. (2004).
"Fructus agni casti and bromocriptine for treatment of hyperprolactinemia
and mastalgia". International journal of gynaecology and obstetrics:
the official organ of the International Federation of Gynaecology and
Obstetrics. 85 (3): 292–293. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2004.01.001. PMID 15145274.
41.
Jump up^ Weisskopf, M.;
Schaffner, W.; Jundt, G.; Sulser, T.; Wyler, S.; Tullberg-Reinert, H. (2005).
"A Vitex agnus-castus extract inhibits cell growth and induces apoptosis in
prostate epithelial cell lines". Planta Medica. 71 (10):
910–916. doi:10.1055/s-2005-871235.
42.
Jump up^ Adelson, K.B.;
Loprinzi, C.L.; Hershman, D.L. (2005). "Treatment of hot flushes in breast
and prostate cancer". Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 6 (7):
1095–1106. doi:10.1517/14656566.6.7.1095.
43.
Jump up^ Ambrosius, F
(2006). "New indication for Vitex agnus-castus
extract?". Zeitschrift für Phytotherapie. 27 (2):
95.
44.
Jump up^ Goetz, P (2009).
"Phytotherapy of benign prostatic
hyperplasia". Phytotherapie. 7 (5): 275–278.
45.
Jump up^ Ambrosini, Anna;
et al. (2013). "Use of Vitex agnus-castus in migrainous women with
premenstrual syndrome: an open-label clinical observation". Acta
Neurologica Belgica. 113 (1): 25–29. doi:10.1007/s13760-012-0111-4.
47.
Jump up^ Roemheld-Hamm,
B. (1 September 2005). "Chasteberry". Am Fam Physician. 72 (5):
821–4. PMID 16156340.
48.
Jump up^ Azadbakht, M.;
Baheddini, A.; Shorideh, S.M.; Naserzadeh, A. (2005). "Effect of Vitex
agnus - Castus L. leaf and fruit flavonoidal extracts on serum prolactin
concentration". Journal of Medicinal Plants. 4 (16):
56–61.
49.
Jump up^ Mehlhorn, H.;
Schmahl, G.; Schmidt, J. (2005). "Extract of the
seeds of the plant Vitex agnus castus proven to be highly efficacious as a
repellent against ticks, fleas, mosquitoes and biting flies". Parasitol-Res. 95 (5):
363–5. doi:10.1007/s00436-004-1297-z. PMID 15682335.
 |
&&&&&&&
شحرور
بضم شین و سکون حا و ضم راء مهملتین و سکون واو و راء مهمله در
آخر لغت عربی است و بترکی قراطارخ و باصفهانی غوغار و بمازندرانی توکاور نامند
در ماهیت آن
اختلاف است اکثری کفته اند طائریست سیاه بجثۀ قمری و منقار و پاهای
آن دراز و زرد مائل بسرخی و اقوال دیکر که دراج و کبک دری و نوعی از کنجشک بزرک سیاه
طویل العنق و منقار و پا است توهم است
طبیعت آن
در دوم کرم و تر و در اول کرم و خشک نیز کفته اند
افعال و خواص آن
سریع الهضم صالح الغذا و جهت کزاز و مالیخولیا و فالج نافع و خون
آن با روغن بادام بغایت مورث حسن صوت و رافع کرفتکی آواز و صاحب منهاج کفته که بهترین
آن کوشت آنست و صلب و کرم و خشک و دیر هضم بسبب صلابتی که دارد و ردی الغذا و دیرهضم
و مولد خون کرم و مضر معده مصلح آن روغن بسیار است
مداخل مخزن الادویه عقیلی خراسانی
///////////
شحرور. [ ش ُ ] (ع اِ) سار سیاه . سحرور.
شحور. نوعی ازمرغان صحرایی باشد و بعضی گویند کبک دری است و عربی است . (برهان ). شحور.
(منتهی الارب ). پرنده ای است سیاه رنگ کمی بزرگتر از گنجشک ، بخاطر لحن خوشی که دارد
او را در قفس گذارند. ج ، شحاریر. (از اقرب الموارد) (از صبح الاعشی ج 2 ص 75). مرغی
است سیاه و منقار و پای او زرد مایل به سرخی و به قدر قمری و به ترکی او را قره طاوخ
و به اصفهانی غوغاز و به مازندرانی توکا* نامند. (از تحفه حکیم مومن ). و رجوع به شحور شود.
* توکا. (اِ) مرغی است از جنس تیهو
به قدر کبوتر و بر بدنش خالهای سفید و سیاه است و در جاهای مرطوب بیشتر پیدا شود. در
مازندران این مرغ را تیکا گویند. (فرهنگ نظام ).
///////////////
توکای سیاه یا توکای معمولی (Turdus merula) پرندهای از سردهٔ توکا و بومی اروپا، آسیا و شمال
آفریقا است و انسان آن را به مناطق دیگر دنیا مثل استرالیا و نیوزیلند، آمریکای شمالی،
پرو، برزیل، آرژانتین، اروگوئه، شیلی و جزایر فالکلند هم وارد کرده‌است.
چندین زیرگونه از این پرنده در محدودهٔ زیستی گستردهٔ آن زندگی می‌کنند، تعدادی از
زیرگونه‌های آسیایی را گاه گونه‌ای مستقل در نظر می‌گیرند. با توجه به عرض جغرافیائی،
توکای سیاه ممکن است مقیم، نیمه‌مهاجر یا کاملاً مهاجر باشد.
جنس نر زیرگونهٔ اصلی این پرنده که در بیشتر مناطق
اروپا زندگی می‌کند، کاملاً سیاه با حلقهٔ چشمی و منقار نارنجی و آوازی با ملودی
غنی است؛ جنس ماده و پرندهٔ نابالغ پوشش قهوه‌ای پررنگ دارد. این پرنده در درخت‌زارها
و باغ‌ها زندگی می‌کند و لانهای شکیل با نوارهایی از گِل و فنجان‌شکل می‌سازد. توکای
سیاه همه‌چیزخوار است و از انواع مختلف حشرات، کرم‌های خاکی، توت‌ها و میوهها تغذیه
می‌کند.
هر دو جنس در فصل زادآوری خود قلمروطلبند
و از نمایش‌های تهدید مشخصی بهره می‌جویند، اما در هنگام مهاجرت و نواحی زمستان‌گذرانی
اجتماع‌دوست‌تر میشوند. جفت‌ها در طول سال، در جاهایی‌که هوا به اندازه کافی معتدل
باشد، در قلمرو خود باقی می‌مانند. اشارات زیادی به این پرندهٔ پرشمار و متمایز از دیگر پرندگان
در آثار ادبی و فرهنگی دیده می‌شود که معمولاً به آواز آن مرتبط میباشند.
منابع[ویرایش]
توکای سیاه وب‌گاه پرندگان ایران
Wikipedia contributors,
"Common Blackbird," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_Blackbird&oldid=402392438
(accessed January 2, 2011).
//////////////////
قس عربی:
الشحرور أو الزرياب (الاسم العلمي: Turdus merula) (بالإنجليزية: Common Blackbird)، هو طائر ينتمي إلى
فصيلة السمنية (فصيلة: Turdidae)
، يعيش في أوروبا وآسيا والمشرق العربي والمغرب العربي بالإضافة إلى أستراليا ونيوزيلندة.
ويسمى ايضا الشحرور الاوراسي وخاصة في
امريكا الشمالية.[2] ذكر الشحرور البالغ أسود اللون في كل جسمه عدا منقاره وحلقة حول
عينيه أصفرا اللون؛ للأنثى وللشحرور الصغير لون بني داكن بشكل عام. يعيش الشحرور في
الغابات والحدائق. إنه قارت يأكل أنواعا عدة من الحشرات، الديدان الأرضية، العوز والفواكة.
و يكون لون بيضه اخضر مائل الى الازرق
عش الشحرور وفيه 3 بيضات
طالع[عدل]
زرياب الموسيقي.
مراجع[عدل]
^ مذكور في : القائمة الحمراء للأنواع
المهددة بالانقراض 2016.3 — معرف القائمة الحمراء للأنواع المهددة بالانقراض: http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/103888106/0 — تاريخ الاطلاع: 11 ديسمبر
2016 — عنوان : The IUCN Red List
of Threatened Species 2016.3
— تاريخ النشر: 8 ديسمبر 2016
^ Common_blackbird
مشاريع شقيقة في كومنز صور وملفات عن:
شحرور
أيقونة بوابة
//////////////
قس آذری:
Qara qaratoyuq (lat. Turdus merula) - qaratoyuqlar fəsiləsinin qaratoyuq
cinsinə aid heyvan növü.
//////////
قس باسای اندونزی:
///////////
قس عبری:
השַחֲרוּר (שם מדעי: Turdus merula) היא ציפור ממשפחת
הקיכליים בסדרת ציפורי השיר. נפוץ באירופה, באסיה ובצפון אפריקה והובא על ידי האדם
לאוסטרליה ולניו זילנד.
אורכו של השחרור הוא 23.5
- 29 ס"מ, מוטת כנפיו היא 45-39 ס"מ ומשקלו נע בין 80 ל-125 גרם. גוף הזכר
כולו שחור (מכאן שמו בעברית ובערבית) מלבד טבעת צהובה מסביב לעיניו ומקור צהוב. בנקבה
בוגרת, הנוצות והמקור הם בצבע חום ואין טבעת צהובה מסביב לעיניים. לגוזלים יש צבע נוצות
בהיר במקצת משל הנקבות, וחזה מנומר.
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قس کردی:
Boqijeya reş an jî reşwêle, cureyekî fîkaran e. Perikên vê çivîkê seranser reş in, lê nikil û
qiraxa çavên wê pirteqalî ne. Meziniya wê mîna ya boqijê 25 cm e.
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قس کردی سورانی:
ڕەشیشە یان شالوور (دهوك:شالیل) ( بە ئینگلیزی Common Blackbird، بە فارسی توکای سیاە، بە عەرەبی شحرور) باڵندەیەکە لە خێزان و تۆرەمەی ڕەشیشەکان .
٢٥سمە، نێر لە مێ گەورەترە و تەواو ڕەشە. مێکان دندووک و بازنەی دەوری چاویان نارنجییە و ملیان خاڵخاڵە. نێرەکان بە باڕی قاوەیی ئاماڵ ڕەشن و دندووکیان تۆخە. ئەم باڵندەیە لە سەر زەوی چینە دەکا، کلکی وەک چەتر لێدەکا و قیت ڕایدەگرێ و باڵان شۆڕ دەکا. لە لێڕەوار و باخاندا دەژی. لە نێو پەرژین و میچی تەویلە و ھۆڵان ھێلانە ساز دەکا. زستانان زۆر دەبینرێت.
///////////
قس ترکی استانبولی:
Karatavuk ya da kara bakal (erkek) ve boz bakal (dişi) (Turdus merula),
karatavukgiller (Turdidae) familyasından tüyleri kara, meyve ve böceklerle
beslenen ötücü bir kuş türü.
/////////////
Common blackbird
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Common blackbird
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A male common blackbird with a worm in its mouth
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T. merula
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Global range of the nominate subspecies Year-Round Range Summer Range Winter Range
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The common
blackbird (Turdus merula) is a species of true thrush. It is also called Eurasian
blackbird (especially in North America, to distinguish it from the
unrelated New World blackbirds),[2] or simply blackbird where
this does not lead to confusion with a similar-looking local species.
It breeds in Europe, Asia, and North Africa, and has been introduced to Canada, United States,
Mexico, Peru, Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, the Falkland Islands, Chile, South Africa, Australia
and New Zealand.[3] It has a number
of subspecies across its large
range; a few of the Asian subspecies are sometimes considered to be full
species. Depending on latitude, the common blackbird
may be resident, partially migratory, or fully migratory.
The
male of the nominate subspecies, which is found throughout
most of Europe, is all black except for a yellow eye-ring and bill and has a rich,
melodious song; the adult female and juvenile have mainly
dark brown plumage. This species breeds in
woods and gardens, building a neat, mud-lined, cup-shaped nest. It is omnivorous, eating a wide range
of insects, earthworms, berries, and fruits.
Both
sexes are territorial on the breeding grounds, with
distinctive threat displays, but are more gregarious during migration and in
wintering areas. Pairs stay in their territory throughout the year where the
climate is sufficiently temperate. This common and
conspicuous species has given rise to a number of literary and cultural
references, frequently related to its song.
Contents
[show]
The
common blackbird was described by Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae in 1758 as Turdus
merula (characterised as T. ater, rostro palpebrisque fulvis).[4] The binomial name
derives from two Latin words, turdus,
"thrush", and merula, "blackbird", the latter
giving rise to its French name, merle,[5] and its Scots name, merl.[6]About 65 species of
medium to large thrushes are in the genus Turdus, characterised by
rounded heads, longish, pointed wings, and usually melodious songs. The common
blackbird seems to be closest in evolutionary terms to the island thrush (T. poliocephalus)
of Southeast Asia and islands in the southwest Pacific, which probably diverged
from T. merula stock fairly recently.[7]
It
may not immediately be clear why the name "blackbird", first recorded
in 1486, was applied to this species, but not to one of the various other
common black English birds, such as the carrion crow, raven, rook, or jackdaw. However, in Old English, and in modern English up to about the
18th century, "bird" was used only for smaller or young birds, and
larger ones such as crows were called "fowl". At that time, the
blackbird was therefore the only widespread and conspicuous "black
bird" in the British Isles.[8] Until about the
17th century, another name for the species was ouzel, ousel or wosel (from Old English osle, cf.
German Amsel). Another variant occurs in Act 3 of Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, where Bottom refers to "The
Woosell cocke, so blacke of hew, With Orenge-tawny bill". The ouzel usage
survived later in poetry, and still occurs as the name of the closely
related ring
ouzel (Turdus
torquatus), and in water ouzel, an alternative name for the unrelated but
superficially similar white-throated dipper (Cinclus cinclus).[9]
_-lawn-8.jpg)
Juvenile T. m.
merula in England
.jpg)
Two
related Asian Turdus thrushes, the white-collared blackbird (T. albocinctus)
and the grey-winged blackbird (T. boulboul),
are also named blackbirds,[7] and the Somali thrush (T. (olivaceus)
ludoviciae) is alternatively known as the Somali blackbird.[10]
The icterid family of the New World
is sometimes called the blackbird family because of some species' superficial
resemblance to the common blackbird and other Old World thrushes, but they are
not evolutionarily close, being related to the New World warblers and tanagers.[11] The term is often
limited to smaller species with mostly or entirely black plumage, at least in
the breeding male, notably the cowbirds,[12] the grackles,[13] and for around 20
species with "blackbird" in the name, such as the red-winged blackbird and the melodious blackbird.[11]
As
would be expected for a widespread passerine bird species, several geographical
subspecies are recognised. The treatment of subspecies in this article follows
Clement et al. (2000).[7]
Near adult of nominate
subspecies still showing some brown in the wings
Female of
subspecies merula
·
T. m. merula, the nominate
subspecies, breeds commonly throughout much of Europe from Iceland, the Faroes and the British
Isles east to the Ural Mountains and north to about
70 N, where it is fairly scarce. A small population breeds in the Nile Valley. Birds from the north of
the range winter throughout Europe and around the Mediterranean including Cyprus and North Africa.
The introduced birds in Australia and New Zealand are of the nominate race.[7]
·
T. m. azorensis is a small race
which breeds in the Azores. The male is darker and
glossier than merula.[14]
·
T. m. cabrerae, named for Ángel Cabrera, Spanish zoologist, resembles azorensis and
breeds in Madeira and the
western Canary
Islands.[14]
·
T. m. mauretanicus, another small dark
species with a glossy black male plumage, breeds in central and northern Morocco, coastal Algeria and northern Tunisia.[14]
First-summer male,
probably subspecies aterrimus
·
T m. aterrimus breeds in Hungary,
south and east to southern Greece, Crete northern Turkey and northern Iran. It winters in southern
Turkey, northern Egypt, Iraq and southern Iran.
It is smaller than merula with a duller male and paler female
plumage.[14]
·
T. m. syriacus breeds on the
Mediterranean coast of southern Turkey south to Jordan, Israel and the
northern Sinai. It is mostly resident,
but part of the population moves south west or west to winter in the Jordan Valley and in the Nile Delta of northern Egypt
south to about Cairo. Both sexes of this
subspecies are darker and greyer than the equivalent merula plumages.[7]
·
T. m. intermedius is an Asiatic race
breeding from Central Russia to Tajikistan, western and north east
Afghanistan, and eastern China. Many birds are resident but some are
altitudinal migrants and occur in southern Afghanistan and southern Iraq in
winter.[7] This is a large
subspecies, with a sooty-black male and a blackish-brown female.[15]
The
Asian subspecies, the relatively large intermedius also
differs in structure and voice, and may represent a distinct species.[15] Alternatively, it
has been suggested that they should be considered subspecies of T. maximus,[7] but they differ in
structure, voice and the appearance of the eye-ring.[15][16]
In
Europe, the common blackbird can be confused with the paler-winged
first-winter ring
ouzel (Turdus
torquatus) or the superficially similar European starling (Sturnus
vulgaris).[17] A number of
similar Turdus thrushes exist far
outside the range of the common blackbird, for example the South American Chiguanco thrush (Turdus
chiguanco).[18] The Indian blackbird, the Tibetan blackbird, and the Chinese blackbird were formerly
considered subspecies.[19]
The
common blackbird of the nominate subspecies T.
m. merula is 23.5 to 29 centimetres (9.25 to 11.4 in) in
length, has a long tail, and weighs 80–125 grams (2.8 to 4.4 oz). The adult male has glossy
black plumage, blackish-brown legs, a
yellow eye-ring and an orange-yellow bill. The bill darkens
somewhat in winter.[17] The adult female is
sooty-brown with a dull yellowish-brownish bill, a brownish-white throat and
some weak mottling on the breast. The juvenile is similar to the female, but has
pale spots on the upperparts, and the very young juvenile also has a speckled
breast. Young birds vary in the shade of brown, with darker birds presumably
males.[17] The first year male
resembles the adult male, but has a dark bill and weaker eye ring, and its
folded wing is brown, rather than black like the body plumage.[7]
The
common blackbird breeds in temperate Eurasia, North Africa, the Canary Islands, and South Asia. It has
been introduced to Australia and New Zealand.[7] Populations
are sedentary in the south and
west of the range, although northern birds migrate south as far as
northern Africa and tropical Asia in winter.[7] Urban males are
more likely to overwinter in cooler climes
than rural males, an adaptation made feasible by the warmer microclimate and
relatively abundant food that allow the birds to establish territories and
start reproducing earlier in the year.[20]
Common
over most of its range in woodland, the common blackbird has a preference for
deciduous trees with dense undergrowth. However, gardens provide the best
breeding habitat with up to 7.3 pairs per hectare (nearly three pairs per acre), with woodland
typically holding about a tenth of that density, and open and very built-up
habitats even less.[21]They are often replaced
by the related ring
ouzel in
areas of higher altitude.[22]
The
common blackbird occurs up to 1000 metres (3300 ft) in Europe,
2300 metres (7590 ft) in North Africa, and at 900–1820 metres
(3000–6000 ft) in peninsular India and Sri Lanka, but the large Himalayan
subspecies range much higher, with T. m. maximus breeding at
3200–4800 metres (10560–16000 ft) and remaining above
2100 metres (6930 ft) even in winter.[7]
This
widespread species has occurred as a vagrant in many locations in Eurasia outside
its normal range, but records from North America are normally considered to
involve escapees, including, for example, the 1971 bird in Quebec.[23]However, a 1994 record
from Bonavista, Newfoundland, has been accepted as a
genuine wild bird,[7] and the species is
therefore on the North American list.[24]
Eggs in a nest
Two chicks in their first
hours as another egg begins to hatch
.jpg)
Two chicks in a nest
The
male common blackbird defends its breeding territory, chasing away other males
or utilising a "bow and run" threat display. This consists of a short
run, the head first being raised and then bowed with the tail dipped
simultaneously. If a fight between male blackbirds does occur, it is usually
short and the intruder is soon chased away. The female blackbird is also
aggressive in the spring when it competes with other females for a good nesting
territory, and although fights are less frequent, they tend to be more violent.[21]
The bill's appearance is
important in the interactions of the common blackbird. The territory-holding
male responds more aggressively towards models with orange bills than to those
with yellow bills, and reacts least to the brown bill colour typical of the
first-year male. The female is, however, relatively indifferent to bill colour,
but responds instead to shinier bills.[25]
As
long as winter food is available, both the male and female will remain in the
territory throughout the year, although occupying different areas. Migrants are
more gregarious, travelling in small flocks and feeding in loose groups in the
wintering grounds. The flight of migrating birds comprises bursts of rapid wing
beats interspersed with level or diving movement, and differs from both the
normal fast agile flight of this species and the more dipping action of larger
thrushes.[14]
The
male common blackbird attracts the female with a courtship display which
consists of oblique runs combined with head-bowing movements, an open beak, and
a "strangled" low song. The female remains motionless until she
raises her head and tail to permit copulation.[21] This species is
monogamous, and the established pair will usually stay together as long as they
both survive.[14] Pair separation
rates of up to 20% have been noted following poor breeding.[26] Although the
species is socially monogamous, there have been studies showing as much as 17%
extra-pair paternity.[27]
Nominate T.
merula may commence breeding in March, but eastern and Indian races
are a month or more later, and the introduced New Zealand birds start nesting
in August (late winter).[7][22] The breeding pair
prospect for a suitable nest site in a creeper or bush, favouring evergreen or
thorny species such as ivy, holly, hawthorn, honeysuckle or pyracantha.[28] Sometimes the birds
will nest in sheds or outbuildings where a ledge or cavity is used. The
cup-shaped nest is made with
grasses, leaves and other vegetation, bound together with mud. It is built by
the female alone. She lays three to five (usually four) bluish-green eggs marked with
reddish-brown blotches,[21] heaviest at the
larger end;[22]the eggs of
nominate T. merula are 2.9×2.1 centimetres
(1.14×0.93 in) in size and weigh 7.2 grammes (0.25 oz), of which
6% is shell.[29] Eggs of birds of
the southern Indian races are paler than those from the northern subcontinent
and Europe.[7] The female
incubates for 12–14 days before the altricial chicks are hatched
naked and blind. Fledging takes another 10–19 (average 13.6) days, with both
parents feeding the young and removing faecal sacs.[14] The nest is often
ill-concealed compared with those of other species, and many breeding attempts
fail due to predation.[30] The young are fed
by the parents for up to three weeks after leaving the nest, and will follow
the adults begging for food. If the female starts another nest, the male alone
will feed the fledged young.[21] Second broods are
common, with the female reusing the same nest if the brood was successful, and
three broods may be raised in the south of the common blackbird's range.[7]
A
common blackbird has an average life expectancy of 2.4 years,[31] and, based on data
from bird
ringing,
the oldest recorded age is 21 years and 10 months.[32]
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A male singing
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Within
its native Northern Hemisphere range, the
first-year male common blackbird of the nominate race may start singing as
early as late January in fine weather in order to establish a territory,
followed in late March by the adult male. The male's song is a varied and
melodious low-pitched fluted warble, given from trees, rooftops or other
elevated perches mainly in the period from March to June, sometimes into the
beginning of July. It has a number of other calls, including an aggressive seee,
a pook-pook-pook alarm for terrestrial predators like cats,
and various chink and chook, chook vocalisations.
The territorial male invariably gives chink-chink calls in the
evening in an (usually unsuccessful) attempt to deter other blackbirds from
roosting in its territory overnight.[21] During the northern
winter, blackbirds can be heard quietly singing to themselves, so much so that
September and October are the only months which the song cannot be heard.[33] Like other
passerine birds, it has a thin high seee alarm call for
threats from birds
of prey since
the sound is rapidly attenuated in vegetation, making the source difficult to
locate.[34]
At
least two subspecies, T. m. merula and T. m.
nigropileus, will mimic other species of birds, cats, humans or alarms, but
this is usually quiet and hard to detect.
The
common blackbird is omnivorous, eating a wide range
of insects, earthworms, seeds and berries. It
feeds mainly on the ground, running and hopping with a start-stop-start
progress. It pulls earthworms from the soil, usually finding them by sight, but
sometimes by hearing, and roots through leaf litter for other invertebrates. Small amphibians and lizards are occasionally
hunted. This species will also perch in bushes to take berries and
collect caterpillars and other active
insects.[21] Animal prey
predominates, and is particularly important during the breeding season, with
windfall apples and berries taken more in the autumn and winter. The nature of
the fruit taken depends on what is locally available, and frequently includes
exotics in gardens.
Near
human habitation the main predator of the common blackbird is the domestic cat,
with newly fledged young especially vulnerable. Foxes and predatory
birds, such as the sparrowhawk and other accipiters, also take this species
when the opportunity arises.[35][36] However, there is
little direct evidence to show that either predation of the adult blackbirds or
loss of the eggs and chicks to corvids, such as the European magpie or Eurasian jay, decrease population
numbers.[28]
This
species is occasionally a host of parasitic cuckoos, such as the common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus),
but this is minimal because the common blackbird recognizes the adult of the
parasitic species and its non-mimetic eggs.[37] In the UK, only
three nests of 59,770 examined (0.005%) contained cuckoo eggs.[38] The
introduced merula blackbird in New Zealand, where the cuckoo
does not occur, has, over the past 130 years, lost the ability to recognize the
adult common cuckoo but still rejects non-mimetic eggs.[39]
As
with other passerine birds, parasites are common. 88% of common blackbirds were
found to have intestinal parasites, most frequently Isospora and Capillaria species.[40] and more than 80%
had haematozoan parasites (Leucocytozoon, Plasmodium, Haemoproteus and Trypanosoma species).[41]
Common
blackbirds spend much of their time looking for food on the ground where they
can become infested with ticks, which are external parasites that most commonly
attach to the head of a blackbird.[42] In France, 74% of
rural blackbirds were found to be infested with Ixodes ticks, whereas,
only 2% of blackbirds living in urban habitats were infested.[42] This is partly
because it is more difficult for ticks to find another host on lawns and
gardens in urban areas than in uncultivated rural areas, and partly because
ticks are likely to be commoner in rural areas, where a variety of tick hosts,
such as foxes, deer and boar, are more numerous.[42] Although ixodid
ticks can transmit pathogenic viruses and
bacteria, and are known to transmit Borrelia bacteria to birds,[43] there is no
evidence that this affects the fitness of blackbirds except when they are
exhausted and run down after migration.[42]
The
common blackbird is one of a number of species which has unihemispheric slow-wave sleep. One hemisphere of the
brain is effectively asleep, while a low-voltage EEG, characteristic of wakefulness, is present
in the other. The benefit of this is that the bird can rest in areas of high
predation or during long migratory flights, but still retain a degree of
alertness.[44]
_-_Turdus_merula_(016f).jpg)
The
common blackbird has an extensive range, estimated at
10 million square kilometres (3.8 million square miles), and a
large population, including an estimated 79 to 160 million individuals in
Europe alone. The species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the
population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than
30% in ten years or three generations), and is therefore evaluated as Least Concern.[45] In the
western Palaearctic, populations are
generally stable or increasing,[14] but there have been
local declines, especially on farmland, which may be due to agricultural
policies that encouraged farmers to remove hedgerows (which provide nesting
places), and to drain damp grassland and increase the use of pesticides, both of which could
have reduced the availability of invertebrate food.[35]
The
common blackbird was introduced to Australia by a bird dealer visiting Melbourne in early 1857,[46] and its range has
expanded from its initial foothold in Melbourne and Adelaide to include all of
south-eastern Australia, including Tasmania and the Bass Strait islands.[47] The introduced
population in Australia is considered a pest because it damages a variety of
soft fruits in orchards, parks and gardens including berries, cherries, stone
fruit and grapes.[46] It is thought to
spread weeds, such as blackberry, and may compete with
native birds for food and nesting sites.[46][48]
The
introduced common blackbird is, together with the native silvereye (Zosterops lateralis),
the most widely distributed avian seed disperser in New Zealand. Introduced
there along with the song thrush (Turdus
philomelos) in 1862, it has spread throughout the country up to an
elevation of 1,500 metres (4,921 ft), as well as outlying islands such as
the Campbell and Kermadecs.[49] It eats a wide
range of native and exotic fruit, and makes a major contribution to the
development of communities of naturalised woody weeds. These communities
provide fruit more suited to non-endemic native birds and naturalised birds,
than to endemic birds.[50]
Sing a Song for Sixpence cover illustration
The
common blackbird was seen as a sacred though destructive bird in Classical
Greek folklore, and was said to die if it consumed pomegranate.[51]Like many other small
birds, it has in the past been trapped in rural areas at its night roosts as an
easily available addition to the diet,[52] and in medieval
times the conceit of placing live birds under a pie crust just before serving
may have been the origin of the familiar nursery rhyme:[52]
Sing a song of sixpence,
A pocket full of rye;
Four and twenty blackbirds baked in a pie!
When the pie was opened the birds began to sing,
A pocket full of rye;
Four and twenty blackbirds baked in a pie!
When the pie was opened the birds began to sing,
The
common blackbird's melodious, distinctive song is mentioned in the poem Adlestrop by Edward Thomas;
And for that minute a
blackbird sang
Close
by, and round him, mistier,
Farther and farther, all the birds
Farther and farther, all the birds
In
the English Christmas
carol The Twelve Days of Christmas, the line commonly sung
today as "four calling birds" is believed to have originally been
written in the 18th century as "four colly birds", an archaism meaning "black
as coal" that was a popular English nickname for the common blackbird.[55]
A
recording of a male blackbird is heard singing on 'Blackbird' by the Beatles,[56][incomplete short citation][57] although it is not
clear whether the song was about an actual blackbird or was an allegory for the
civil rights struggle in America.
The
common blackbird, unlike many black creatures, is not normally seen as a symbol
of bad luck,[52] but R. S. Thomas wrote that there is
"a suggestion of dark Places about it",[58] and it symbolised
resignation in the 17th century tragic play The Duchess of Malfi;[59] an alternate
connotation is vigilance, the bird's clear cry warning of danger.[59]
The
common blackbird is the national bird of Sweden,[60] which has a
breeding population of 1–2 million pairs,[14] and was featured on
a 30 öre Christmas postage stamp in 1970;[61] it has also
featured on a number of other stamps issued by European and Asian countries,
including a 1966 4d British stamp and an 1998 Irish 30p stamp.[62] This
bird—arguably—also gives rise to the Serbian name for Kosovo, which is the
possessive adjectival form of Serbian kos ("blackbird")
as in Kosovo
Polje ("Blackbird
Field").[63]
1.
Jump up^ BirdLife International (2016). "Turdus merula". IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species. Version 2016.3. International Union for
Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
2.
Jump up^ Alderfer,
Jonathan, ed. (2006). Complete Birds of North America. Washington,
D.C.: National Geographic Society. p. 489. ISBN 0-7922-4175-4.
3.
Jump up^ Long, John L.
(1981). Introduced Birds of the World. Agricultural Protection
Board of Western Australia. pp. 21–493
4.
Jump up^ Linnaeus, Carolus (1758). Systema
naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum
characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima,
reformata (in Latin). Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii). p. 170.
5.
Jump up^ Le Robert, Paul
(2001). Le Grand Robert de la langue française (in French).
Dictionnaires Le Robert. ISBN 2-85036-673-0.
6.
Jump up^ Dictionary of the Scots Language. University of
Edinburgh: Scottish Language Dictionaries.
7.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Clement, Peter;
Hathway, Ren; Wilczur, Jan (2000). Thrushes (Helm Identification Guides).
Christopher Helm Publishers Ltd. ISBN 0-7136-3940-7.
9.
Jump up^ Lockwood, W. B.
(1984). Oxford Book of British Bird Names. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-214155-4.
10.
Jump up^ Sinclair, I., &
P. Ryan (2003). Birds of Africa south of the Sahara. Struik
Publishers, Cape Town. ISBN 1-86872-857-9
11.
^ Jump up to:a b Jaramillo,
Alvaro; Burke, Peter (1997). New World Blackbirds: The Icterids. Helm Identification Guides. Christopher Helm
Publishers Ltd. ISBN 0-7136-4333-1.
12.
Jump up^ "All About Birds:
Bronzed Cowbird". Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 2003.
Retrieved 18 February 2008.
13.
Jump up^ "All About Birds:
Great-tailed Grackle". Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 2003.
Retrieved 18 February 2008.
14.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i Snow, David;
Perrins, Christopher M., eds. (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic
concise edition (2 volumes). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854099-X. p1215–1218
15.
^ Jump up to:a b c Collar, N. J.
(2005). Common Blackbird (Turdus merula). p. 645 in: del Hoyo, J.,
Elliott, A., & Christie, D. A. eds. (2005) Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 10.
Cuckoo-shrikes to Thrushes. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. ISBN 84-87334-72-5
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